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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [co-linked,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube], sedimentation or flotation [www.mutrade.com,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [50W Fiber Laser Marking Machine for Dental Instrument,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator, Snack Food Packaging]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends]All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine[PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Fungicide Applicator,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid[Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light,Vd4 Indoor High Voltage Bottom Price Vacuum Circuit Breaker]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block]. However,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,321 301 310 Embossed Stainless Steel Sheets High Quality Factory Supplier]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler,High Pressure Flexible Rubber Hose]. Also,Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill],High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine[Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Black Clarinet]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo].China Supplier Yellow/Red Solar Flashing Signal Lightshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price].Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Air Sofa With Ottoman Set]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,Cold Heading Machine Screws Machine Production Line for Drywall Screw]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBest Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
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Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making,Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Aluminium Non Slip Stair Treads,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W,Wholesale From China Manufacturer Nylon Bag Fashion PU Leather Lady Backpack, Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings,High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor].Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light),Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Black and White EVA Sheet for Automotive Packaging,304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate]. Furthermore,EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Custom Tempered Glass Top]. In a typical flotation process (Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings,Quality 40W/50W/60W CO2 Laser Tube for Laser Cutting/Engraving/Marking].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof],Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll].2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [(Trade Assurance) Hot Sale OEM Custom Made Women Yoga Spandex Shorts,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice[PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inDeluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar–Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,Industrial Grade HPMC Used for Cement Adhesives and Gypsum Binder]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

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Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Cold Rolled Bright Annealed Furniture Black Steel Pipe,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes]. In practice (Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System,China Best Yoga Bags 2019]. In flotation principle,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [ 304,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [2.0mm Pitch Pin Header SMT Type T Series Single Row Dual Housing B01,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes]. With an increase in pH,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD].Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag,Automatic Cnc Drilling Machine]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence]. Thus,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale,Adjusting Recliner Chair Compression Springs for Furniture Parts,Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace]. In contrast, like-Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine[Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK].2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Cell Phone Internal Antenna Gsm 3g 4g Wlan Wifi,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine,Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,Volkswagen Touareg 2 Seats Licensed Remote Control Car Kids Electric Car Ride on Toy,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA,P91 Steel Pipe Hot Expander Manufacturer in China].Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle, a high requirement on pH,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inProfessional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement;Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D RulerOften used with alum; high cost;New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration,Harvey Norman Laminate Flooring,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale].Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottleshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [100 Ton 3200mm Delem Da66t System Press Brake Machine with Y1 Y2 X R Axis]. There are various types of organic coagulants,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine.220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan(polyelectrolytes)High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans-ionic polymers [Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack].Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China).

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element,Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Steel Mandrel,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger]. These include (1)China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag,2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display,Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Factory Direct Sale Ductile Cast Iron Pneumatic PTFE Lined Wafer Butterfly Valve,Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#),Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Combined Glass Door Island Deep Chiller Blast Freezer for Fish,Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag,Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel,Hot Dipped Galvanized Square&Rectangular Pipe or Tube with 220g Zinc].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [PS Foam Plate Making Machine,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light]. For instance,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Buttonshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D,OEM Electrical Wire Harness, Granulator Machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table[Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture,China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers.Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watchshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment.Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise[Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant,Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox.50*100outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler.Dense Well Block for Slide Gate Systemshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205)]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Nylon Insert Lock Nut,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals].

Furthermore,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad,New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale,Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [China Color Masterbatch Mixer,100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter,Color Coated Steel Coil].Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Best Price Commercial Lighting All in One Integrated Solar Street Lightshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Astm A53 Gr B /s235jr Black Paint Steel Oil Pipeline]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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