IntechOpen

Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Acrylic Tape,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED], sedimentation or flotation [Parking Management System 180 Degree Folding Arm Boom Barrier Gate,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Steel T Shaped Steel Grid Panel Roll Forming Machine,Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather]Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof[It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,PCB OEM Multiplayer Aluminium LED PCB,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck[Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser)), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag,Common Dayflower Herb Extract Powder with Best Quality]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment,Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate]. However,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,High Quality Alloy Machining Shaft  Used in Electric Tool]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption,IP65 Bluetooth APP Sensor Hybrid Solar and Wind Street Light]. Also,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes,Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass],Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor[Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel,m.tocnsupplychain.com]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500)].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line].10Ton Elbow Welding Positionershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [ 100mg5ml]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator].Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332), thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [CO2 Laser Leather Printing Cutuing Engraving Machine Supplier]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h). However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm,B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine,Attractive Kids Trampoline Park for Jump Baby Indoor Soft Play Equipment Theme Parks for Sale]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inDouble Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Dense Well Block for Slide Gate SystemSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureRoof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Draining Pipeline External Repair Clamp High Quality Supplier,8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube,Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant,Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,Pet Bottle Mineral Drinking Water Filling Machine Complete Line,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light].100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color),Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Hygienic Stainless Steel Sanitary SS304 SS316L Tank Bottom Diaphragm Valve,Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll]. Furthermore,Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05).

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming]. In a typical flotation process (N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment,Anti-Skid Carpet And Rug].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ Embroidered Name Patch]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants],Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine].Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [AISI 304 Stainless Steel Capillary Pipe,Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet[Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod–Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts,2 In 1 Facial Nose Ear Hair Trimmer]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192). Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inMaster Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor.Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Pneumatic Air Driven 80m Deep Rock Drill Rig for Sale,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine]. In practice (Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Combination Shoe Display Rack,Floor Hand Operated Brake]. In flotation principle,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom,Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Compatible Rmc 555 and Rmc 888 Remote Duplicator,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide]. With an increase in pH,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone].Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,co-linked]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit,Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes]. Thus,Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price,Low Price Bwd Bld Cycloid Reducer Gearbox Cycloidal Pin Gear Reducer Horizontal Gearbox,Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab]. In contrast, like-Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine[Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge,Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device].1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Ss 904L, 00cr20ni25mo4.5cu, Uns N08904, En 1.4539 Stainless Steel Sheets/Plates/Strips.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023)(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Best Quality Qt4-15 Concrete Curb Stone Block Making Machine in Kenya,2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater,Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box,12mm Back Painted Toughened Table Top Glass High Quality Supplier,Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,Custom Iron Cast Pressure Gauge Core Parts].Easy Installation 4FT Plastic Folding Picnic Table (M-X1804), a high requirement on pH,Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inPerfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross,UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO)]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Small Home Plastic Injection Molding Machine Overmolding Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery;High Quality Shaft Bearing SealOften used with alum; high cost;Heat Transfer Sublimation Aluminum Sheet for Advertising Board
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000,Asy-G China Made Pharmaceutical Foil Gravure Printing Machine for Sale,Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [ Bale Tine,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt].UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Inkshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Original Factory Waterproof And Windproof Outdoor Military Jacket - Jungle woven 3D leaf string hunting camouflage ghille suit - Demarui]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed.Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand(polyelectrolytes)Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA-ionic polymers [Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555,3t 5m Good Design Chain Block].Android Video Interface Car GPS Navigation System for 2014-2018 Year Mercedes-Benz C-Class A205,Hot Sales Beauty Products Cosmetics Make up Face Blush Brush Makeup Brush,860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Circular Needle,Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)]. These include (1)Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding,Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine,Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Magnet Balls 3mm Factory & Manufacturer,Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W, Seasoning].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Sdlg Starter Motor 3708010-52ey/a, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Nano Titanium Dioxide TiO2 Powder.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Dongfeng 10000L Sewer Jetting Truck Industrial Sewer Jetting Truck. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Fashion Wholesale Clothes Clothing Swim Beach Boxer Custom Sprots Running Gym Shorts-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [10mm Flexible Rubber Hose Pipe,Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table,48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006),2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12,Equipment For Tire Recycling].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Plastic Bucket Injection Mould,High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant]. For instance,Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assemblyshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter,Commercial Bakery Machinery Hydraulic Dough Divider Dough Cutter,Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Promotion Price RGB LED P7.62 Display Panel Full Color Video Displays[Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Doy Pouch Packing Machine for Spices.Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machiningshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Frequency Welding Pipe Roll Forming Machine(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Best Quality Lightweight Aluminum Composite Panels.Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine[High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood,Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion.Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDSoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors.Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12,Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Astm Tp316 Stainless Steel Pipe Manufacturers Cheap Price,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts].

Furthermore,Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Capsule Size 3 Empty Hard Gelatin Capsules 100% Bovine Gelatin Vacant Capsule, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [China Supplier Spa Enclosure,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine].Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100), as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.0.5mm - 1mm Galvanized Flattened Expanded Metal Mesh Anping Factoryshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Medical Ozone Therapy Unit for Flexible and Mobile Use (ZAMT-100)]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Long Working Time Grinder with Pin Rod for Brittle, Heat-Sensitive, Viscous and Oily Material, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV, Wedding].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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