IntechOpen

Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [ Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity,2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Led 31pcs 10w Auto Light,Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors)]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake,Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle,Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire], sedimentation or flotation [Rectangular Aluminum Tube Bending Rolling Machine,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B),Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [China Esd Bag,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish]Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W[Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers,Ignition Starter Switch for VW Golf Jetta Mk4 Passat Beetle Audi B5 B6 B7 C5 D2 Tt 4b0905849 4b0 905 849,Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate[a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill,Hospital Medical Infusion Pump Price]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High Speed Small Brushless Motor,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem]. However,Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [ SMD LED Soldering Machine,Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover,Cheap Light]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor,Lighting Herb Grinder]. Also,Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed],Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale[Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Api 5l Pipe]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail].Automatic Potato Chips Production Line Wholesaler Quotes & PriceListshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products,Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46)].40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Steel Bar Reinforcing Construction Pleated Screen Wire Mesh]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Pipe 3003]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,Szadp Fiber Optical Fast Ethernet Gigabit Network Poe Switch 8 Port]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet ProductsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureXinjing Wide-Mouth Kitchen Glass Square Jar for Spice, Seasoning
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [China Cheap Hydraulic Cylinders,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,High Quality Oil Liquid Weighing Dispensing Filling Machine,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation,Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality].2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile),35L Electric Car Mini Fridge. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Transistors Stf15n80k5,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting]. Furthermore,Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts]. In a typical flotation process ( P60), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light,Organza Wine Bottle Gift Bags Wholesale].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank],6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Telescopic Camera Jib Crane,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine].2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [12v Small Cooling Fan,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column[New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inWedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)–Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,Sinter Powder Metal Filter Supplier & Manufacturer]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHigh Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer.High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Wood Grain Melamine Impregnated Printed Paper,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks]. In practice (ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,Electronics Display Kitchen Hood Pcb]. In flotation principle,Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Mctrl4K Controller Sending Card with Receiving Card Mrv210 Mrv336 Use,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale].Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,Promotional Jewelry Gift Paper Box with Ribbon and Inner Tray]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price]. Thus,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Power Socket,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce]. In contrast, like-New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing[Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court].We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [ Booth Seating for Restaurant]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Smart Big 7L Hydroponic Indoor Garden System,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Bathroom Mirror Touch Switch Sensor,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,300ml Pet Bottle Blowing Machine - Blow Moldling Machine].Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCustom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Combination Shoe Display Rack; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication;Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel CoilOften used with alum; high cost;Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Aluminum Alloy Profile,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet].Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrumentshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Steel Pipe Fittings]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape.Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003(polyelectrolytes)Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall-ionic polymers [Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector].Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps.
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Wholesale Women Pure Black Cropped Draw Stringer Sport Fitness Leisure Shorts,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components]. These include (1)Neoprene Elbow Support, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [High Quality Mbr Underground Wastewater Treatment for Printing and Dyeing Sewage,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Carbon Steel Laser Cutting Machine,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,Baby Gumboots Factory OEM/ODM Products].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm]. For instance,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,Limbo Dancer Bar,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62)[Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming.Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Covershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile.Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67[FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set.TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder.Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizingshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [15.6 Inch Laptop Computer 4GB DDR3 500GB Core I3/I5/I7 Laptop,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging].

Furthermore,China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Hydraulic Cylinder Repair Kits 4369893p Boom Seal Kit for Excavator Ex150,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant].Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Side Entry Rj11 Connector with Outer Dimension Is 8p and Inner Size Is 6pshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[2019 Ce Approval Body Cool Shapes Slimming RF Machine Fast Vacuum Cavitation System]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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