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Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46)-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay, Black Excavator Track Rollers]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Leather Bamboo Watch,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China,High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole,Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer], sedimentation or flotation [Best-Selling Metal Floor Lamps -,Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [6 Pin Rocker Switch Factory OEM/ODM Products,Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack,High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration]700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle[Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Hammer Oil Rotary Union of Rotary Drilling Hose,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts[Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Vital Injector,China 99.9% Purity Al2o3 Ceramic Tubes]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne,Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102]. However,Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel,A guitarra elétrica]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40,Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container,Concrete Foam Equipmen Cement Brick Making Machine]. Also,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking],Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine[Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block,Rubber Timing Belt 193yu32]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W,Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door,China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts].www.aerovtech.comshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit,Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock].Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [High Efficiency Concrete Pump Machine Used for High Rise Buildings]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer,Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat,Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier,Laminating Machine]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inDisposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water TowerSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureSafety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Egg Box Machine Manufacturers Cheap Price,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Enery Saving Cheap Plastic Recycling Machine,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women, New Zealand].Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine),Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts]. Furthermore,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line]. In a typical flotation process (Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,Adaptor].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal],Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30].Product Design and Molding, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Vickers Pump,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil[Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332)]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable–Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry,Automatic Pet Snack Food Net Weighing Packaging Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inCustomizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging.Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation,Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Elastic Woven Casual Women Shoes Breathable Lady Shoes,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h),Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom]. In practice (Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Stainless Steel Sliding Shower Enclosure with Frame and Double Handles]. In flotation principle,High Quality Restaurant Booth Seating From Factory Sale, Booth Seating for Restaurant-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Tint Brush,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils]. With an increase in pH,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler].Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof,13.4L 22.4L Inflatable Helium Tank Disposable Balloon Helium Gas Cylinder]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er]. Thus,Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector,www.ra-tl.com,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps]. In contrast, like-Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine[Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package].Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1).

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Marbling PU Cornice Moulding Decor Ceiling Molding Polyurethane Cornice Crown,60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Toughened Railing Glass]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,PINION,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable,Brass Milling Parts].Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress, a high requirement on pH,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCustomized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches;Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper BoxOften used with alum; high cost;Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,m.cixi-gts.com,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration].Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Constructionshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [UPVC Ball Valve 1/2 to 4]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing.UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna(polyelectrolytes)3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys-ionic polymers [OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover,Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery].Four-Shaft Auto Polyester, BOPP, PE Film Slitting Machine,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor,New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Hexagon Glass Jar,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table]. These include (1)High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Qk1338 Big Diameter Oil Pipe Turning Lathe, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Sex Toy Shop,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Pleated Water Filter Cartridge,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,White Plastic Defoaming Masterbatch].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook]. For instance,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Anti-Fatigue Rubber Work Station Drainage Mat,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine[Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058).40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylindershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid.Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use[Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats. Snack Food Packagingoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking.Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Endsshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [blockmachinechina,Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light].

Furthermore,Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [tonyearchem.com,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [ Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)].Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.High Quality Custom Summer Fleece Printed Baby Blanketshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Matrix Keyboard 3X3 Matrix Membrane Switch PCB Membrane Keypad Switch]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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