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Four-Shaft Auto Polyester, BOPP, PE Film Slitting Machine-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012).Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1),CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone,7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine,Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [One-Stop PCB Assembly,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill,Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring], sedimentation or flotation [X5032b X5032bh Universal CNC Mini Parts of The Universal Milling Machine,5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [ 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine,580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Hot Sale Modern Simply Style Training Office Staff Chair,Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type,High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers]Qk1338 Big Diameter Oil Pipe Turning Lathe, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine[Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks,Custom CNC Made Aluminum Plastic Nylon Turned Parts,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700)]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder[RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16)), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler,2019 Hot Sale Steel Suspended Ceiling T Grid]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed]. However,Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side,High Performance Facial Skin Treatment and Whitening Water and Oxygen Machine]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10,Traditional Pet Preform Stretch Blow Molding Machine for Jar]. Also,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment,SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment],Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine[4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug,Price of China Made Hydraulic Portable Backhoe Excavator 1000kg]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [ Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men].Stainless Steel Sanitary Pneumatic Threated Butterfly Valve with Unionshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand,Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico].EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Wholesale Genuine Leather Women Bag Fashion Ladies Handbag]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Aramid Filter Bag for Asphalt Plant Dust Collector]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)Suspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureGeyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Seamless Tube,Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,Cmyk Printing MIFARE FM1108 13.56MHz 1K Contactless RFID Payment Cards,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood].Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance ( Graphitized Recarburizer),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Digital Poster,Travel Duffel Bag]. Furthermore,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production]. In a typical flotation process (Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449,Salon mat].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder],High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer].Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Stainless Steel Clamps,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price[China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inChina Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate–AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders,Sticky Backed Fastener Self Adhesive Hook & Loop Strap]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inStainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks.Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [m.china-aquatech.com,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit]. In practice (Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile,Most Popular Pretend Wooden Children Baking Set with Toy Mixer W10d188]. In flotation principle,Embroidered Patch, Iron on Patch, Custom Patches, Embroidered Name Patch-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Cotton Candy Automatic Packing Machine,Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml]. With an increase in pH,2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board].Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer,Fashion Pup Clothing Stripes Dog Printing T-Shirt Pet Summer Clothes]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector]. Thus,OEM Ad Player Inch Multi-Touch Ad Player 43 Inch on Alibaba Top Manufacturer LCD Digital Signage Outdoor Food Kiosk Design.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet,Lush Ice Mango Mint Great Taste Custom Pod Electronic Cigarette Disposable,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil]. In contrast, like-3 in One Portable Mini Car Negative Ion Air Purifier. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller[Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print].China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Complete Transformer Substation,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree,Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid,Festival,Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,RoHS 94V0 Electronic PCB Printed Circuit Board Prototype Water Meter PCB Design].Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine, a high requirement on pH,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Sale;1.8m Height Hot Dipped Galvanized Chain Link FencingOften used with alum; high cost;Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen,Jj079 Socket Tools Ratchet Screwdriver & Bit Set,Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs].Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decorationshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Hooded Beach Towel High Quality Supplier]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer.Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality(polyelectrolytes)Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet-ionic polymers [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket,High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher].New Pop Design Aluminum Clip in Ceiling for Interior Decorative,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube,Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Popular Cement Paver/Hollow Block Machine in India
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Supplier Automatic Straight Seam ERW Pipe Making Machine
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [m.nq-chem.com,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector]. These include (1)D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Ltaly Type Earth Clamp for Welding Ground Clamp,Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Stone Grinding Mill (YGM Series).

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Multi-Functional Slimming Equipment RF Cavitation Diode Laser System-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Corrugated Pipe Extruder,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket,Lovesac Care Instructions].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [ Fruit Infuser Water Bottle, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading]. For instance,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patchshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Custom Ceramic Mug,Square Manhole Cover,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts[Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Aluminum Household Step Ladder]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping.Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Childrenshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262).35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer[China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve.Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factoryoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand.Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zippershows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [2018 Brand New 3d Metal Printer,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal].

Furthermore,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Calcium Lignosulphonate for Concrete Admixture/Water Reducer/Dispersant Agent 8061-52-7,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger].Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.(8X8X8shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Pepper Peanut Sauce Colliod Miller Grinding Machine]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,China Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Weichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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