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Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Hot Sale Hahal Poultry Chicken Slaughtering Equipment,Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable,Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber], sedimentation or flotation [Diesel Driven Dewatering Pump Factory OEM/ODM Products,Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Golden Galvanic Salon Use Eyes Lifting Acne Treatment Machine,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction]Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle[OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover,Durable Rubber Car Parking Bumper Buffer Block for Security (RB04),Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler[Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table,Heavy Duty Large Power Plant Cargo Trailer Transport Full Wheel Drive 8X8 Shacman Tractor Head with LNG CNG Fuels]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module]. However,Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,1082 Shiny Diamond Glitter Wallpaper for Decoration]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk,Dovetail Milling Cutter]. Also,Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use],Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler[35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,500mg Soft Capsule]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube].Maquina PARA Doblar Rollos De Papel PARA EL Cuello Del Peluqueroshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant].New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Brand New Handmade Tassels Bag]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator, Snack Food Packaging,Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,High Productivity Glass Perforation of The Surface of The Appliance Marking Durable3w 5W 10W UV Fiber Laser Making Machine]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inClone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with FanSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve,Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Exhaust Factory Price Industrial Oil Water to Water Air Chiller Unit Manufacturers, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,ruichirobot,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)].Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler),4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China). These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Puffed Food Extrusion Machine,Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting]. Furthermore,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray]. In a typical flotation process (10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Chain Link Fence For Baseball Fields Exporter Hot Sale Product].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line],China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Grey Iron Casting Parts,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table[Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inPolyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric–Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,Bopp Bag With Adhesive Flap]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inManual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton.6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction]. In practice (Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,Plastic PE LDPE Irrigation Pipe Hose Tube Wrapping Packing Machine]. In flotation principle,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Featured, Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings]. With an increase in pH,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor].Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light,Best Selling Whitening and Brighten Cotton Tencel Face Mask Cosmetics]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate,Custom Tempered Glass Top,Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928]. Thus,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings,Conveying System,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)]. In contrast, like-HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set[Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price].Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [2019 World Cup Slap Cup Beer Glass Plastic,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058),PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,Hight Quality Low Price flat bar din carbon cold drawn steel,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive,Chinese Laid Scrims Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList].Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inInterlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3;Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making MachineOften used with alum; high cost;BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System,Steel flooring formwork, 304].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088,Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine].Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [1-2 Micron Superfine Tungsten Trioxide (YTO) Yellow Tungsten Powder]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People.Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System(polyelectrolytes)2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)-ionic polymers [Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes,Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration].Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Dicalcium Phosphate 18% Granular DCP 18% Feed Grade Animal Nutrition Feed Additives,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh]. These include (1)T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Aluke Punch Tool Cartridge for Aluminium Type,Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [300W DC to AC Car Power Inverter,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine,Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,Factory Pipo X9s 4G 64G Tablet PC Wins 10 Android 5.1 Dual Boot Mini PC Pipo X9s TV Box 8.9inch Screen].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality,Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine]. For instance,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wallshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA,Solution Provider Quotes,Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan[Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater.Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decorationshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production.HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps[Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone,Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light.Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Saleoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er.Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottleshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element,Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Portable Laser Engraver 20W.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [www.antpackaging.com,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger].

Furthermore,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag,2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display,Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Calcium Carbonate Powder Making Machine,Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#)].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss].Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Lightshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[www.worldlinkhat.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700), and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [PS Foam Plate Making Machine,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Vital Injector. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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