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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant].Fire Fighting Gloveshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women, New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine].25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Biobase High Precision Medicine Liquid Clarity Tester]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom]. In a typical flotation process (Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Laser Cutting Fabrics Machine].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord],New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture].Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Brake Shoe Assembly,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade[Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inTwin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler–Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light, Soda Ash(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof,Luxury Wedding Collapsible/Folding Paper Packing Gift Box for Gift Packaging]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Spotting Drills,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox]. With an increase in pH,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed].Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008).
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask,Natural Stone Rings Factory & Manufacturer].Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller, a high requirement on pH,Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500). Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBlue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine.
Dispersions: In this case,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set[Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid.Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens.
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts].Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.www.machinefactroy.comshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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