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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Thigh Cuffs,Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8], sedimentation or flotation [OEM Ductile/Grey Iron Foundry Sand Casting Product,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Permanent Magnetic Separator for Conveyor Belts,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)]Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro[Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,m.hybonsecurity-eas.com,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes[9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,m.ds-gasspring.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes]. However,20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Prototype Flexible Circuit Board FPC for Camera Module]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court,Ndfeb N52 Neodymium Magnet]. Also,High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005), for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ Booth Seating for Restaurant,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks],Microfiber Beach Towel Fast Dry Towel, Outdoor Towel, Travel Towel, Swim Towel, Yoga Towel[High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,LED Backlight Lightguide for Makeup Mirror]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill].Industrial Grade Nitrous Oxide for Hot Salesshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt].Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Cast Iron Antique Hand Water Pump]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,2017 Hot Products 6.5 Inch Smart Electric Self Balance Scooter]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFactory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321)Suspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureLexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Rebar Coupling Used to Link Two Rebar,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,Car Scrubber Machine High Quality Supplier,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage].Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart),72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Inflatable Gymnastics Inflatable Trampoline Tumble Track Mattress,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar]. Furthermore,3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter]. In a typical flotation process (Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,OEM Customized Brass Casting CNC Copper Polishing Precision Machining for Decoration Parts].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood],Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine].Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Food Waste Granules Making Organic Fertilizer Machine, Granulator Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Construction Equipment Mini Hydraulic Breaker Jack Hammer for Mini Excavator,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)[1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils,Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCustom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag–Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Normal Open Pneumatic Actuator Angle Seat Valve]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHeavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover.Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [300mm Stroke Linear Module Sliding Bearing for CNC System,Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]. In practice (Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,48 Core Lc Termination Box]. In flotation principle,China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Butterfly Valve with Worm Gear Box,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo]. With an increase in pH,Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine].High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Chicken Stunning Equipment]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]. Thus,Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter,Good-Looking Barbecue Tool Bamboo Skewer/Stick/Pick (BC-BS1041),Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing]. In contrast, like-Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage[High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade].The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [6mva 13.8kv Power Transformer 6000kVA Transformer, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,12kv Column Boundary Switch Outdoor High Voltage Vacuum Circuit Breaker,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,www.fq-laser.com].Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding, a high requirement on pH,Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun;Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose AssemblyOften used with alum; high cost;Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Plastic Dewatering Machine with Moisture Less Than 3%,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs].One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Testshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Two Wheel Electric Vehicle]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Travel Duffel Bag, Foldable Weekender Bag with Shoes Compartment (grey).Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block(polyelectrolytes)Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store-ionic polymers [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,Fruit Juice Production Line].4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [www.qiyymcft.com,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment]. These include (1)Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Big Capacity 1500ml Dark Green Glass Champagne Bottle Wine Bottle,High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug,Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Optical Fiber Box,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery,5V/12V/24V 4 Channel Relay Module Supportthe High and Low Level Trigger (Red board)].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold]. For instance,100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lightingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine,Designer Women Leather Handbags,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce[UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna,Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print.Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet.3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing[Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector,LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel.High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cableoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link.Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurantshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage, Injection Mould Maker in China]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Light Weight EVA Slide for Girls,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover].

Furthermore,Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine,Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable,Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface), biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Building Construction Material,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine,Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262)].Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Minimize Hose Couplingshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Saa6d114 Engine Parts]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser). This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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