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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Best Soft Airplane Quilt Supplier for Airline,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [3d Bouncing Ball,Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool,Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work], sedimentation or flotation [Clavicle Brace For Posture,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [ Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way,Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [1.25g Sfp,Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill]Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate[Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality,Dispenser Adhesive Machine,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line[5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant ( 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine,New Product 1080P HD 30 Fps Small Button Police Wearable Body Worn Camera]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid,Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type]. However,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding,High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers,dryingfree.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700),RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16),4 Person Electric Car]. Also,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler,2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed],Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades[Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Widely Use Poultry Manure Pellet Machine]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side,Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt].Clevis With Hookshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment,SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment].High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Church Chair Theater Seat]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross,China Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inOEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb SportswearSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand,Malleable Fittings Union]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [2018 New Style Doors and Windows Edge Polishing Machine Type 1300r-R Manual Vertical Wood Sanding Three Sides Wood Door Frame Sanding Machine, Mexico,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve,Organic Fertilizer Production Line Equipment / Organic Fertilizer Ball Granulating Machine,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette].Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station),High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [4 Ton Hydraulic Bottle Jack,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price]. Furthermore,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe]. In a typical flotation process (Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Parking Management System 180 Degree Folding Arm Boom Barrier Gate].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light],9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood].8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Zoreya Z81 New Design 1PCS Professional Nylon Hair Customized Foundation Blush Powder Makeup Brush, Graphitized Recarburizer], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine[Travel Duffel Bag]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production–110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth,Rhubarb Powder]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inLiaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449.Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Biobase High Quality Low Price Water Circulating Vacumn Pump,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)]. In practice (China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,Automatic Facial Tissue Embossing Slitting Machine Suppliers/Manufacturers for Sale]. In flotation principle,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Popular Reed Diffuser with Rattan Sticks in White Packing,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set]. With an increase in pH,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit].Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm,Frame Mixing Equipment for Sale]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile,Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange]. Thus,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Water Wasting Tee Connector Plain Equal 90 Degree Threaded Tee Fitting Straight,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box]. In contrast, like-200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine[Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic].UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Sport Pop Upsoccer Football Goal Nets,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector,Coffee Maker Filter,Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print,Tall Glass Vase Decorative Centerpiece for Home or Wedding].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children, a high requirement on pH,Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage;Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe MachineOften used with alum; high cost;Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree,Motorbike Tubeless Tire,Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement].Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Toolshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Hot Sale Panoramic Sightseeing Elevator]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox.Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return(polyelectrolytes)Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation-ionic polymers [New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC].BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [api 5l grade b,Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen]. These include (1)Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Rotary Adjustable Roller Lever Arm Mini Limit Switch,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration,Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [0.9mm Tight Buffer Fiber Extrusion Machine,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle,Size Customized St1260 HP1260 Ha1350 Hz1430].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable]. For instance,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)shows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Custom Orange White Kraft Paper Bag,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking[Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray.Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bagshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication[Electric Massage Bed Pedicure Chair with Double Dust Collector].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS.25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market[OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer. Passenger Elevator with Small Loadingoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site.Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patchshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor[China Copper To Steel Pipe Fittings].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Custom Ceramic Mug]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine,Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Aluminum Household Step Ladder]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [China Baby Electric Ride on Car Remote Control Kids Motorcycle,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children].

Furthermore,5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [m.ymspcb.com,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine].Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.High Precision Aluminum/Brass/Steel/ Steel Threaded Ring / Stainless Steel Forged Flange Plastic CNC Machining Partshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Poultry Farm House Design / Egg Chicken House Design for Layers Chicken House]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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