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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Polyelectrolyte Cationic,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box], sedimentation or flotation [Black Dwc Sewerage And Drainage Pipe Line,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Equipment For Tire Recycling,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes[High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),m.aviationaluminum.com,Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type[Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,China Portable Bookshelf]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China]. However,Dental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,Colorful Slime Package Box]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,Latest New Design Fashion Kid PVC Rain Coat]. Also,2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller],Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer[Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,Danish Flower Trolley]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water].Matte Black Graduation Gown with Honor Cordsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine].High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Mobile Car Wash Pressure Washer]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Good Price Automatic Liquid Sachet Juice Milk Drinking Water Pouch Filling Packing Packaging Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,57mm Small Brushless DC Worm Planetary Gear Motor]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inGMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
2-Color Handle Adjustable SpannerSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureWholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Multifunctional Corn Hammer Mill for Sale,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Color Candle Holder Empty Glass Candle Container,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine].Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance ( Great for Vintage),Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [12mic Aluminum Metallized Polyester Film for Flexible Air Ducts,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart]. Furthermore,Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar]. In a typical flotation process (CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Coffee Bean Packaging Plastic Bag. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,Adopting Advanced Linear Slider Vertical Foam Cutting Machine].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee],Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm].Factory Price Cellulose Ether HPMC, HEC, Hpc, CMC, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Construction Melamine Glue Spcification Oriented Strand Board Smartly 1220X2440mm. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Electronic Survey Factory OEM/ODM Products,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610[Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,PS Foam Plate Making Machine) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper–RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,China Manufacturer Supply 8 Tons Cable Pulling Hydraulic Winch]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe.Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover,FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Aluminium / Stainless Channel Letter Auto Profile Bending Machine Price,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing]. In practice (Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,0.20mm to 12.50mm High Carbon Spring Steel Wire]. In flotation principle,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Ntc Probe with Handle Temperature Sensor for Meat,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]. With an increase in pH,China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China].High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,14G Computerized Fully Fashion Knitting Machine (AX-132S)]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor]. Thus,Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood,Extruded Aluminium,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter]. In contrast, like-Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw[Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding].10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Axe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [High Pressure Homogenizer for Lab and Industry Usage,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,J4 Stainless Steel Coil,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,3d Bouncing Ball].Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory, a high requirement on pH,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inMedical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh;Car Accessories Car Decoration Universal Purple Down Cotton Thick Warm Plush Auto Car Seat CoverOften used with alum; high cost;High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling,Drywall Screw Factory,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps].Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefsshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Excellent High Quality Full Gold Sequins Lace Fabrics Gold Sequins Wedding/Party Lace Fabric]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm.Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock(polyelectrolytes)Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid-ionic polymers [One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette].Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining,Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver,Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Fruit Juice Production Line,Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Yg15 Cemented Carbide Strips,0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering]. These include (1)Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment,Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Medical Disposable Scalp Vein Set (22Gx3/4),Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal,High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Swbf-17b6s 6 Die 6 Blow Bolt Former Machine, Bolt Machine, Screw Machine, Heading Machine, Multi-Station Cold Heading Machine, Automatic Bolt-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Big Power with Harsen Engine 360kw 450kVA Open/Silent Diesel Generator,Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC),CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,Scrap Steel Induction Furnace].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery,Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine]. For instance,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Moldshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Animal Gym Baby Play Mat,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Hot Sales Popular Carton Custom Softcover Book&Printing Service[OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping,UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer.Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Liftshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price.Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord[Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine,Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16).LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Lightoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product.High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cableshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

Pepper Sauce Packing Machine[Bwg 22 Electro Galvanized Wire].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes,3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205).

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [m.jshd-medical.com, Injection Mould Maker in China].

Furthermore,PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine,Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Ablation Laser Skin Resurfacing,Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine].China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Es-012 Original Lens TV LED Backlight Use for 42′′ LG Innotek 3.0shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262)]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Touchscreen Ce RoHS Approved LED Bathroom Mirror Illuminated Magic Mirror with Antifog]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle,2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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