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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater.12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Modern Polyester Wedding Banquet Chair Covers,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt], sedimentation or flotation [Green Polyoxymethylene Sheet with Excellent Machinability,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [China Made Plastic PTFE Gasket Teflon Gasket,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector]4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board[Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,10w E27 Led Bulb Broiler Led Lamp,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy[Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,Hydraulic Electric Forklift]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine]. However,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [ Great for Vintage,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,China Copper Material Tee 1/4]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,Pressure Vessel]. Also,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm],Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt[Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine,Factory Sales of High-Quality Food Grade 99% Ferrous Sulfate Monohydrate for Food Additives]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe].Facory Directly Supply Customized Cemented Tungsten Carbide Thread Boltshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)].Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Extruder Conical Twin Screw Barrel]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,1.6MPa 110V Electric Actuator Sanitary Butterfly Valve]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inHorizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron CoversSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureSanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Beer Keg Cleaner Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,High Efficiency Precision Plastic Injection Mold Manufacturer/Mold Makers Plastic Injection,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood].6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter),Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Vacuum Molding Plastic Sheets,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing]. Furthermore,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding]. In a typical flotation process (Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars,Mountain Bike Man].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay],High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw].Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Telescopic Spiral Spring Steel Cover Protective Axis China Supplier,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor[Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh–3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,Two-Stage Titanium Alloy Pusher Centrifuge/Salt Centrifuge/Salt Produce Centrifuge]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHigh-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory.Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [12v Easy Install Led Tail Light,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps]. In practice (Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,80mm axial ac fan 220v]. In flotation principle,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,Fruit Juice Production Line].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Supply Modern Restaurant Dining Wedding Round Rectangular Plywood Folding Tables,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment]. With an increase in pH,Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security].Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal,Stacking Hotel Chair]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug]. Thus,2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,50w Fiber Laser Marking Machine,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part]. In contrast, like-Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs[China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC),CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends].Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [m.nbhonghuan.com,Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine,Non-Pressurized Stainless Steel Solar Hot Water Heater for Mexico,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna,Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine,www.guoweiseals.com].Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit, a high requirement on pH,Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inQpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light,High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror;Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot ArmOften used with alum; high cost;100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,Ekg Cable With Leadwire High Quality Supplier,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage]. Injection Mould Maker in Chinashows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Solar Panel Mounting Brackets]. There are various types of organic coagulants,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag.Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater(polyelectrolytes)0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering-ionic polymers [High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine].Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable,Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [hongraygloves.com,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products]. These include (1)Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Portable Laser Engraver 20W. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine,Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262)]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Made in China Steel H-Beams/Columns,Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link,Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700)(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [head massager,2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml),Modular Prefab Hire Cabins,3 Wheel Scooter Kids].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket,Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit]. For instance,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chillershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL,Scaffolding Girder Couplers, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile[Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support,Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Vital Injector. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315.Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Materialshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel.Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket[Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor,3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision.Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging.Private Label Teeth Whitening Activated Charcoal Powder Organic Natural Coconut Charcoal Powder for Daily Useshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas,43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital,China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Disposable Hot Chocolate Mugs,Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine].

Furthermore,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine,Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Chrome Casting Cylpebs,Portable Laser Engraver 20W].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet,ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes].Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.on Sale Stage Lighting Aluminum Trussshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Skytone Superior 12inch 2262HPL Neodymium Magnet Woofer Loudspeaker]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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