IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts,Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors)]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Henan Beidi 65 Casement Series White Color PVC Profile for Windows and Doors with High Quality,Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle,Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth], sedimentation or flotation [www.anebonmetal.com,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Clipsal Electrical Plug,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers]Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale[Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,9mm Pvc Wall Panel,a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate[Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [High Speed Small Brushless Motor,Refrigeration Parts Copper Screw Snap Action Auto Reset Ksd301 Thermostat with Ce]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem, SMD LED Soldering Machine]. However,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,www.worldlinkhat.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Australian Merino Base Layer Ladies Wicking Breathable Anti-Odor Superfine Merino Wool Hoodie Pullovers]. Also,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker],Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine[Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle,Injection Plastic Fresh Box Mold Lock and Lock Type Used in Microwave Oven]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows].HDPE Drainage Corrugated Pipe with Double Wallshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products,Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market].European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Air Dryer Manufacturer]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Pipe 3003,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,PP Packing Strapping Band with Tool]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inYellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould ManufacturerSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperaturePet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q); and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Epitalon CAS 307297-39-8,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Ac Dc Led Rgb Dmx Driver,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation,Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile].Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting),China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Pac 30% Light Yellow Power,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts]. Furthermore,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [ P60]. In a typical flotation process (Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Access Control].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Telescopic Camera Jib Crane],Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply].Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Hotel Table Linen,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light[Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Brand New Isuzu Giga Tractor Truck with 350, 380, 420, 460 HP,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inScc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality–Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Cheap Decorative New Coloured Paper Washi Tape with DIY]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inExclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box.6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Telescopic Camera Jib Crane. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Double Diaphragm Pump High Quality Supplier,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker]. In practice (Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,Lamianted Foil Kraft Paper for Ice Cream]. In flotation principle,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Guitar Pick Pack Plastic,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building]. With an increase in pH,Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China].Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Carbon Steel Pipe Mill Line]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light]. Thus,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Tie Down Nylon Back to Back Hook and Loop Straps,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml]. In contrast, like-Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant[150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant].ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [m.hegxing-connector.com,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Building Construction Material,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,GB Standard Gate Valve].Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip, a high requirement on pH,Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inUltra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink;Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED DisplayOften used with alum; high cost;Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,Mini High Temperature Gift Ribbons Screen Printing Machine,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument].Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mouldshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Promotional Garment Embroidery Patch with Scotland Logo]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo.Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale(polyelectrolytes)High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole-ionic polymers [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart].Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures,Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Mayflay Standard Catenary Suspension Continuous Shot Blasting Equipment for Vent Casting Rust Cleaning with Steel Shot Spiral Pusher System,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging]. These include (1)Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Customized Plastic Injection Mold/Tool/ Mould for Cap Toy Auto Parts LED LCD TV Frame Motorcycle Parts, Great for Vintage,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [www.asiamzsteel.com,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Grocery Shelf Rack].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine]. For instance,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Matshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Christmas Metal Lantern with Solar Light for Home Decor,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale[304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006). This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry.FC Fiber Optics Adaptershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Hard Plastic Blank Phone Case, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent.Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud[Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board.Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizingoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp.Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Foodshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Ozone Generator For Drinking Water,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment].

Furthermore,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Motorized Transfer Vehicle Used in Manufacturing Industry,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor].Food Trailer Catering Trailer Food Truck +Furniture Set, Service Food Truck, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.0601 كرة برغيshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Nanoscale Silver Silicone Kids Training Tooth Brushes for Children]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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