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Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag.8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids,Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09). The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Corrugated Carton Box Making Line Thin Blade Slitter Scorer Machine,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross], sedimentation or flotation [RFID Anti-Theft Hidden Neck Stash Wallet for Tour,UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector, Bale Tine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Primed Mdf Crown Moulding High Quality Supplier,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt,UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555]Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205)[3t 5m Good Design Chain Block,Arch Doors,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder[Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding,Hot Sale! Hzs35 35m3/H Concrete Mixing Station for Algeria]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine,Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve]. However,100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan,10ton Bottle Jack With Safety Valve]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W, Seasoning,Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System,Tooth Timing Belt Pulley]. Also,Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006),2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12,Plastic Bucket Injection Mould],China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal[High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Internal Combustion Engine]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly,Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter,Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Steel Swivel Rigging Hook].Chemical Industrial Air Pollution Control Systems Low Energy Consumptionshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining,High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood,Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System].Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Amada Welding Machine Sheet Metal Parts Fabrication Service]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS,Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine,Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price,5d Car Mat]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inDIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent QualitySuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Inflatable Obstacle Course,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats,3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing,Multi-Band Ligator for Esophageal Varices,4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine,Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home].Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%),Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Decorate Lawn Solar Lamp,Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder]. Furthermore,Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter]. In a typical flotation process (Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [ Wedding,Optical Brightener Swn 140/52].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products],Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter,Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch].Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.FC Fiber Optics Adapter

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Beacon Bluetooth Pet,Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine[Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck,B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inWPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels–Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday,Credit Card Engraver]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Factory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inCustom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof.33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuator,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN,Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Stainless Steel Pipe Tee,Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer,Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Cap]. In practice (Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit,Digital Alarm Clock]. In flotation principle,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair,Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump,Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Full Automatic 1000 ~ 3000 Liter Water Bottling Plant / Filling Machine Production Line,25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine]. With an increase in pH,Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch,Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal].Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B).

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150),Battery Pullet Rearing Cage]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow,Wedge Pump for Women,Small Home Plastic Injection Molding Machine Overmolding Machine]. Thus,Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel,Medical Use Professional M6 Vacuum Ultra Lipo Beauty Slimming Tripolar RF Cavitation Ultrasound Machine,Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle]. In contrast, like-Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price[110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone,Dental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush].High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Hot Sale Chair,Clear Black Empty 15ml 30ml 50ml 100ml Frosted White Square Glass Perfume Bottles,Front Service Ability Ha2.5 640*1920mm Poster Screen for Store Advertising]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans,Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump,Stone Grinding Mill (YGM Series)]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine,Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer,Electric Fireplace Insert For Existing Fireplace Suppliers for Sale].Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face, a high requirement on pH,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inWholesale Scc638 High Efficiency Water-Based Cutting Fluid in Hot Sale. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest,Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut;Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety FootwearOften used with alum; high cost;Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate,Protective Shoes PU Injection Shoes Nursing Shoes Safety Shoes,Nano Titanium Dioxide TiO2 Powder].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag].Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Boltshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Spice Powder Automatic Packing Machine]. There are various types of organic coagulants,CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine.Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting(polyelectrolytes)Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument-ionic polymers [Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy,Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace].Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit,Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator,PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Ventilation Axial Fan for Cooling System,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [2 Pocket A4 File Folder Factory OEM/ODM Product,Factory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59]. These include (1)Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine,Hot Sale Ladies Handbags Fashion Coin Purse Leather Wallet with Flower Printing]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Christmas Souvenir Towel 3-Piece Pack Bath Gift Towel Set (JRL090),RS-380 High Power DC Brushed Motor Cordless Screwdriver,Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold,Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Graduation Dress Manufacturer China,Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine,First Class Small Permanent Block Magnets]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine,HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps,Garden Metal Sofa Set].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Capsule Size 3 Empty Hard Gelatin Capsules 100% Bovine Gelatin Vacant Capsule,High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller]. For instance, 00cr20ni25mo4.5cushows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch,Hot Sale Cord Composite Strap Making Machine Manufacturer Made in China Dongguan,Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch[Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller,Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.3t 5m Good Design Chain Block.Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Walletshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck.Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container[Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid,Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment.05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4Goutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element.Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelryshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42,PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder,Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [280w beam moving head, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity].

Furthermore,Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts,Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors),Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Custom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Auto Inspection Machine Manufacturers Cheap Price,Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine].Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Solar Energy Productshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Plain Ends Top Wave Spring]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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