IntechOpen

Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [thtransformer.com,Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building], sedimentation or flotation [Reversible Stainless Steel Hot Rolling Mill Machine,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Hot Sale Peltier Air Conditioner with Famous Brand Fan,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce]2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape[Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,SGS Certification New Style Pet Nonwoven Fabric,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather[ Booth Seating for Restaurant].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,Snat 12V 220V 1000W 2000W 3000W 5000W Pure Sine Wave off Grid Solar Power Inverter]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals]. However,En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,China Cheap Cnc Router]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,Leafy Vegetable Bubble Washing Washer Spray Fruit Washing Machine]. Also,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516],Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube[70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,Commercial Bungee Trampoline]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector].High Quality Vulcanized Child Shoes Baby Shoes Kids Shoesshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging].Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Narrow Aisle Side Loader Forklift]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006). However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [ Great for Vintage,Factory Supply Vinasse Dewatering Machine Crops Residual Dehydration Screw Press Solid Separator with Large Capacity]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAuto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry IndustrySuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureLeadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,m.cnjsm.com,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper].Hard Plastic Blank Phone Case, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag),Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [jb-hardware.com,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe]. Furthermore,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover]. In a typical flotation process (FC Fiber Optics Adapter), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,Metal Stamping Die].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing],4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point].New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Food Trailer Catering Trailer Food Truck +Furniture Set, Service Food Truck(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [China High Frequency Vibrating Screen Sieve Machine for Making Production Paper Pulp,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision[Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W,25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging–Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Factory Customized Metal Glitter Fiesta Medal with Best Price]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

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Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [300 Psi Check Valve,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant]. In practice (High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood,Buy Windows 7 Pro Product Key Online]. In flotation principle,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Aviary Fencing,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars]. With an increase in pH,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board). For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay].CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Glass Jar Induction Seal Liner]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens]. Thus,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,Uhf Rfid Wristband,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips]. In contrast, like-Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine[High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal].Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Dough Mixing Machine,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs,Pet Clothes Dogs,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,Fruit Juice Production Line].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,Sintered Super Strong Magnetic NdFeB Rare Earth Permanent Neodymium Block Magnet for Motor].JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve, a high requirement on pH,T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment,Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction;Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet LightsOften used with alum; high cost;Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,48V 50ah 100ah Lithium Iron Phosphate LiFePO4 Solar Battery Pack,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing].Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mugshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [mdiecasting.com]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve.CL1C-GW123 Comlom PC Water Bottle, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle(polyelectrolytes)Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant-ionic polymers [Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part].High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC),CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Industrial Armchair,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery]. These include (1)Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold,100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Emcpioneer High Quality Attenuation 100dB MRI Door,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna,Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Hot Sale Spindle Less Veneer Rotary Peeling Lathe, 1300mm, 2600mm-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Cake Packing Food Self Adhesive Bakery Plastic Bag Making Machine,Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine,Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light,High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable,Cooling Submersible Pump Manufacturers Cheap Price].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes]. For instance,3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toysshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage,Retail Fashion Decorative Wood Watch Display Showcase for Shopping Center, Injection Mould Maker in China].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine[High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle.Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cableshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube[China CNC Milled Precision Machining Parts Company Supplier].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank.Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts[Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner.Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plasticoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine.High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262)]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Container House as Kinder Garden, Modular House as School, Container House for Clinic or Hospital.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [1500kgs Pedal on Self Propelled Electric Stacker Forklift,Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle].

Furthermore,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth, Car Spray Inflatable Booth, Stock Tent for Sale, American paint Booth Style. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace,Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml)]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Black Steel Square Pipe, Bright Surface for Furniture, Rectangular Black Pipe. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [920mm Hot Forming Large Dia Steel Pipe Making Machine,Modular Prefab Hire Cabins].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller].High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Vehicle Air Conditioner Control Panelshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[ Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Canada UK Ceramic Coil 0.5ml Sleek OEM Wholesale Disposable Cbd Oil Vape Pen]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material,Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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