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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Cable Cutting Tools,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine], sedimentation or flotation [Hydrogen Beauty Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [High Precision CNC Aluminum Turning/ Turned Knob Parts for Auto,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart]43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital[China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Auto Screen Changer For Pp Extruder,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade[Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Corner Bracket]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage]. However,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,Sfp Fiber Modules]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,Hydraulic Press Machine]. Also,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine],High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed[Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,Galvanized Iron In Spool Staple Wire]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover].Glass Filler Faucetshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [FC Fiber Optics Adapter]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing].Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [China Solar Panel Solar Cell Photovoltaic 300W Hot Sell]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,Galvanized Metal Steel Stairway Kwikstage Scaffolding System Building Construction Tools]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
High Stability Series High Power InductorSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureMedical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Clear Black Empty 15ml 30ml 50ml 100ml Frosted White Square Glass Perfume Bottles; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [febwebbing.com,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,Yto Engine 100HP 110HP Farm Tractor with Front Loader,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter].4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing),Grey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Polishing Stainless Steel Water Filter Housing in PP Cartridge,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding]. Furthermore,Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]. In a typical flotation process (Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts,86 Inch LCD Display All in One Digital Smart Touch Screen Interactive Electronic Whiteboard for Educational Equipment].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material],Liyuan 4 Inch Stainless Steel Impeller Submersible Water Pumps, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation].17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch), whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30). All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends

Polymer molecular weight (MW)China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Decorative Hanging Lighting,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount[18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service,Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inMedical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips–PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,I-Tech 5000HD Digital Echo Karaoke Power Amplifier]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal.36V/48V 10ah Lithium Battery 250W/500W Fat Tyre Folding Portable, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Indoor or Outdoor Green Palm LED Christmas Fairy Lights,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs]. In practice (One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,125kHz Promotional Waterproof Plastic Hard Card Key Fob T5577 RFID Epoxy Tags]. In flotation principle,High Quality Promotional Custom Alternate Black and White Blocks ID Badge Holder Polyester Lanyard-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Fruit Juice Production Line,Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Customized PMMA PC High Quality Aluminum Profile with Flex Strip for LED Linear Light Wall Lighting for Decoration and Commercial,Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision]. With an increase in pH,Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal].Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Car Charger For Car]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing,Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug,Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291]. Thus,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part,UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)]. In contrast, like-Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle[CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery].Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Plastic Faucet and Mold Suppling, Injection Mould Maker in China(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Color Business Card Printing Machine,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold,100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping,Welded Tube Machine,UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift,Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector,Palm Coated Gripping Safety Working Latex Gloves Rigger Safety Gloves].Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes, a high requirement on pH,Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inLED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable,Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising;Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing SystemOften used with alum; high cost;Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes,www.yihui-press.com,3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage, Injection Mould Maker in China].High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Covershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Comfortable Children Apparel Terry Towelling Boy T-Shirt]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set.Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)(polyelectrolytes)Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage-ionic polymers [Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine,Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable].OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part,600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [accessoires,Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic]. These include (1)Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine,Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262),Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [3pc Ball Valve,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle,2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Ice Block Making Machine Sk-51b,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace,Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml)]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Modular Prefab Hire Cabins,Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket,Android Digital Signage Wall Mounted].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller]. For instance,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVLshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [ Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin,Threaded Forged Steel Check Valve,Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088[Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W,Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace.Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motorshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

Aluminum Die-Casting, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts[Women Silicone Bra].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product.Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1[3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump.Private Label Teeth Whitening Activated Charcoal Powder Organic Natural Coconut Charcoal Powder for Daily Useoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder.Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legsshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital,China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine,Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Straight Shape Anti Colic Glass Baby Bottle BPA Free,Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine].

Furthermore,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box,Portable Laser Engraver 20W]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Back Adhesive 72W Solar Flexible PV Laminate Panels (PVL-72), biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5). Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Can Cooler Bag,Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes,Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass].Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.www.czmtev.comshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[8W Integrated All in One LED Solar Street Light with Lipo4 Lithium Battery]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine,Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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