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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment.Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN,High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine,50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Brand New Chicken Processing Plant Slaughtering Equipment,ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass,Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram,33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol], sedimentation or flotation [m.chncitcnc.com,300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine,Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Supply Bending Cutting Welding Fabrication Service Food Machinery Parts,Affordable Price 7005,Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing]General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts[Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part,1.0619 Steel Castings,New Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks[Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Plastic PVC (vacuum calibration cooling tank haul off cutter stacker) Pipe Extruding Machine), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights,Single Seat Office Sofa]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook,Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness]. However,Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1),PEDAL KAYAK]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [ Service Food Truck,Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b,700c Bike Wheel Set]. Also,Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G), for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade,Fashion Wholesale Clothes Clothing Swim Beach Boxer Custom Sprots Running Gym Shorts],6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine[Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric,5 Ton Front Wheel Loader Manufacturers Cheap Price]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape,Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light].RTU Accurate Pressure Flow Level Measure Long Term Transmission Remote Monitoring Terminal Earth1006shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory,Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder,860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay].Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [E1105706000 SMT Juki Feeder Parts on Sale]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Finishing Aluminium Alloy Profile, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324).

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [ Black Excavator Track Rollers,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold,Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole,13.56MHz NFC ICODE SLIX 2 RFID Label for Library Management]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inLatest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe MachineSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureDJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Custom UV Printing 3D Lens Lenticular Plastic Scale Rulers,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine,Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack,High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House,Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration,China Apron Plate Feeder Machine,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine].The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror),Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [2017 Factory Directly Oversized Women Sunglasses,Vital Injector]. Furthermore,Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne]. In a typical flotation process (Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale,PVC Inflatable Air Bed].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40],3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)].Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Copper Laser Cutting Machine,Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts[Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color,Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home–10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking,Bottom Pouring Steel Ladle for Casting; Foundry Ladle]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inLinear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block.Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W,Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door,China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [High Quality Food Grade Ziplock Plastic Bags -,D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve]. In practice (2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit,8mm Spiral Wrapping Band All Corlors]. In flotation principle,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock,Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat,Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Color Coated Steel Coil/ Steel Coil,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier]. With an increase in pH,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set,LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V].8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Rectangular Box Facial Tissue Paper]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine]. Thus,Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center,Petroleum Pump Parts Double Metal Cylinder Liner,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant]. In contrast, like-Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable[Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women].160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [ New Zealand]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Electronic Drawer Safe for Home,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape,Sm G657A1 Sc APC 1 Fiber Hoptic Connector Matching with Corning Optitap Connector,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,Feiyao Brand Standard High Pressure Hydraulic Oil Hose (FY-JH)].Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s, a high requirement on pH,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag,Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332)]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall;New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#)Often used with alum; high cost;Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable,Cutting Pop up Cards by Dynamic CO2 Laser Scm2000 Machine,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation].Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Caseshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Rheum Officinale Rhubarb Root Extract]. There are various types of organic coagulants,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer.Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration(polyelectrolytes)12V Car Tail Light for Ranger-ionic polymers [Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)].200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine,UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO).

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [60ml 100ml Pet Vape Juice Plastic Dropper E Liquid Bottles,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer]. These include (1)High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Fpc For Circuit Boards,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [300um Waterproof and Tear Resistant PP Synthetic Paper,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof,Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er,China Agricultural Grade Poly Glutamic Acid].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps]. For instance,Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoistingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package,Cuddy Cabin High Speed Aluminium Tour Sport Fishing Boat Yacht,Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube[60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Toughened Railing Glass]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return.Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton[PTFE Teflon Tear Drop Bearing Strip/Ring].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box.Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India[Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe.Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wearoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross.Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bedshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449[Compound Amino Acid].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber,Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [m.hyrubbers.com,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp].

Furthermore,Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Dry Spice Food Nut Sugar Soy Bean Coffee Bean Grinder,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery,Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor].Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.(ASIDA-JX23)shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100)]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[9A Grade Unprocessed Remy Human Hair Chinese Virgin Hair Silky Straight]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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