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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier.Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Super Preferential Price and High Quality 350mm Graphite Electrode,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood, Graphitized Recarburizer], sedimentation or flotation [Lowest Price High Pressure Steel Wire Spiral Hydraulic Rubber Hose Eaton Hydraulic Hose,Travel Duffel Bag] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Portable Mini Laser Marker for Keyboard Mouse Phone Case Mark,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking]All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine[Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,Sheet Metal Forming Parts High Quality Supplier,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid[China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders,Low Profile P-Level Track Rollers and Guide Rails]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine]. However,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,10 Inch Lcd Advertising Player]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile,CNC Industry Equipment Milling Machining Center]. Also,Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange,Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven],High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine[Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box,Laboratory Small Experimental Spray Dryer Apply to All Solutions (e. g. emulsions and suspensions)]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer].Orginal and Genuine Denso Common Rail Injectorshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector,Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet].Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [20 Layers 800t Woodworking Hot Press Machine for MDF Board Making]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs,Fast Delivery Vibrio Cholerae O1/O139 Test Cassette Colloidal Gold Rapid Test Kit]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFactory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet WrappingSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree,Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [X15 Power Monitor Two Way Live Stage Monitor Speaker System,Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,CNC CO2 Laser Cutter 80W at Reasonable Price,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale].Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen),Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Pipe Dismantling Expansion Joint Flexible Pipe Coupling,Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws]. Furthermore,EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer]. In a typical flotation process (Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration,Washing Powder Bag].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher],Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional].2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [CL2T-SF310 Comlom Tri-Folding Camping Carbon Steel Spade,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice[Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle–Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Bluetooth Card Reader]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inPlastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable.1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type),China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [D Shackle And Bow Shackle,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder]. In practice (Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket,Single Gate]. In flotation principle,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [ Fruit Infuser Water Bottle, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch,Custom Ceramic Mug]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Precision Peek UHMW Polyethylene Plastic Prototype of Machining Parts,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine]. With an increase in pH,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Aluminum Household Step Ladder].Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,Easy Taking Fishing Bags Fishing Lure Bag]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory]. Thus,750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Eco-Friendy with SGS (B&C-K075),Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels]. In contrast, like-Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine[Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine].2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Whole Sale Hang Tag Swing Tag Label for Clothing,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,China Interior Doors,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,Sheet Metal Stamping].Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle, a high requirement on pH,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV,China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement;Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D RulerOften used with alum; high cost;New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth,Rocker Chair Armest Stainless Steel Base,Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade]. for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparentshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [43 Inch 7 Segment LED LCD Advertising Android Rk3288 IR Touch Screen Kiosk Display]. There are various types of organic coagulants,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine.220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan(polyelectrolytes)High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans-ionic polymers [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set].Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China).

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8),Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Dn15 Motorized Modulating Valve,Product Design and Molding]. These include (1)China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Bipolar Hall Sensor,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [2030 Cnc Router,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [High Pressure Bus and Truck Wash Machine,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle,250ml Clear Glass Sauce Bottle with Metal Lid].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs]. For instance,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuffshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Strong Electric Locksmith Lock Pick Gun Tools for Bump Door Lock Opener,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table[Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery,6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers.Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cableshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment.Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise[Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox.Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leatheroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler.It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printingshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Gb/T9711,Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment].

Furthermore,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Bespoke Aluminium Extrusions,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light,5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption].Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.D75mm Strong Holding Power Fishing Magnets with Eyeboltshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Automatic Spot UV Coating Machine Hsssgj-620]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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