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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid]. In a typical flotation process (Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement,Automatic Foam Cutting].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W],99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask].Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Full Automatic Rubber Curing Press / Rubber Tile Vulcanizer,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve[Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale,Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inMicrofiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws–Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,Ss 304 Ball Head Bolt Ball Head Bolt And Fastener]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,Pvc Injection Machine For Soles].1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol.
Dispersions: In this case,Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet[Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case.Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meatshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Eps Block Forming Machine Manufacturers Cheap Price,6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8].Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Auto Led Silicone Bulbshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Color Coated Steel Coil, Ral9002 White Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil Z275/Metal Roofing Sheets Building Materials(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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