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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Trailer,Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8], sedimentation or flotation [Reflective ANSI Class 2 Hi Vis Safety Vest with Pockets for Workers Wear,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment,Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [China Flexible Oil Hose,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle]Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate[AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan,CNC Turning Machine,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line[5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,www.gsbracefactory.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel]. However,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry,Sg300sde Sutomatic Stand up Resealable Pouch Filling Packing Machine]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line, 100mg5ml]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard,8mm Float Clear Glass]. Also,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator,Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm],Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades[B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman,Alu Profile With Connectors]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker,Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine,Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel].Top Quality 99.95% Molybdenum Square Platesshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet,8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube].High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [100% Cotton Print Women T-Shirt Wholesale High Quality T-Shirt]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant,Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,Passenger Lift Cost]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAll in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb SportswearSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Silicone Cake Mold Chocolate Craft Candy Baking Mold,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient,Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment, Embroidered Name Patch,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants,Vacuum Brazed Diamond Dry Cutting Saw Blade for Granite Marble Tile Steel,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick].Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book),High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Dongguan Plastic Mould for Sale,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod]. Furthermore,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts]. In a typical flotation process (Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India,Cheap Cnc Milling Machine].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Pepper Sauce Packing Machine],9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine].8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [m.gmcmagnet.com,Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine[Combination Shoe Display Rack]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inVape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom–110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer,Cement Dispersing Agent Factory OEM/ODM Products]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inFactory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3.Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [6020 Fully-Automaic Fiber Laser Tube Cutting Machine Laser Machinery,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover]. In practice (Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit,Solar Alarm Warning Security Anti-Theft Light Sensor Waterproof Farm Garden Lamp]. In flotation principle,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes,Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Aluminum Die Casting Suppliers,Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device]. With an increase in pH,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700,2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater].Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration,China Plastic Prototype Maker]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box,Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown]. Thus,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine,Hand Tools Hacksaw Blade Bi Metal for Backup DIY Chainsaw,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop]. In contrast, like-200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine[NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths].UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Salon Popular 40K Ultrasonic Cavitation RF Vacuum Body Slimming Cryotherapy Machine,UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO),Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector, Bale Tine,Professional Printed Circuit Board Manufacturing,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [3t 5m Good Design Chain Block,UHF RFID Smart Cards].Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children, a high requirement on pH,Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inChihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture,Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage;Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe MachineOften used with alum; high cost;Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding,yunyangcosmetic,Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve,Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet].10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fanshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [ISO9001 & Ce Certificated Superfine Cocoa Cake Powder Grinder Mill]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox.Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return(polyelectrolytes)Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation-ionic polymers [Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W, Seasoning].BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table,48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Corrugated And Drain Pipe Line Suppliers/Manufacturers for Sale,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006)]. These include (1)Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12,Plastic Bucket Injection Mould,High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Reusable Ecg Lead Wires Manufacturers Cheap Price,Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly,Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding,Steel Swivel Rigging Hook].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [13-25microns Pet Metallic Hologaphic Transfer Foil/Film for Decoration Material,PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle,Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood,Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System,High Quality/Strength Carbon Steel /Zinc Plated Anchor Bolt (M4-M64)].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS,Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine]. For instance,Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floorshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price,Stainless Steel Manual 3-Way Plug Valve,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking[Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray.Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scannershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication[Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Welding Check Valve].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS.25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market[Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer.Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seatsoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site.3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishingshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor[Wire Mesh 10mm].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine,Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home,Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [www.szfanshitong.com,Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder].

Furthermore,5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter,Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV, Wedding]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Sewage Treatment Plants,Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter,Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch].Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.One Side Furniture Grade Melamine Chipboardshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Communication Device Parts Mould]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof,Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuator].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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