Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh; Sudesh Rathilal

doi:10.5772/intechopen.84556

Abstract

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Keywords

coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification

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Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine*
- Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
- Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa

*Address all correspondence to:Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree@gmail.com

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

From the Edited Volume

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1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light,5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Cnc Machining Spare Parts For Led Tv,Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel], sedimentation or flotation [4.0MP HD IR Waterproof Bullet Ipc,Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Hyaluronic Acid Injections Supplier & Factory, 100mg5ml,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper]Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping[DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator,Cheap Throw Pillows,Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole[B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine,Factory Supply 150kn Automatic Steel Thread Rolling Machine]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel]. However,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet,Customized PE Coated Printed Greaseproof Hamburger Wrapping Paper]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube,Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,R&R]. Also,Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light],Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale[Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color,Mobile Phone Finger Stand Holder with Strong Adhesive.]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient].

Figure 1.
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment].Carbon Steel ANSI B16.5 A105n 150# Plate-Type Flat Flange Dn 50shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [ Embroidered Name Patch]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine].EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [elderly alarm]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine.

Figure 2.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick,Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts,PPGL Corrugated Steel Roofing Color Coated Metal Roof Sheet]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inMaster Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor.

Coagulant characteristics	MOW characteristics	Physical characteristics
Coagulant type	Water quality	Flotation/settling time
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Coagulant quality	Temperature	Custom Printed Plastic Die Cut Handle Bag with Side Gusset
Coagulant lifespan	pH	Chemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilution	Alkalinity
	Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Custom Logo Design Bracelet Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine,Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed,Combination Shoe Display Rack,Stand-up with Zipper Spout Gusset Pouch Packing Machine,Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom,Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3].Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting),Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Japanese Udon Noodle Wholesale,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide]. Furthermore,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop.

Figure 3.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe]. In a typical flotation process (New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,Fiber Optic Polyester Swab].

Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit],Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes,Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price].Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [AGM Smart Phone,Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine[Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine,Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inPortable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device–750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1

qA=dQAE2

qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700,China Adult Colouring Book]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater.Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration,Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Roll Permanent Magnetic Particle Separator,Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown,Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine]. In practice (Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove,High Density Insulation XPS Foam Board for Building Industry]. In flotation principle,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths,Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO),Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [High Quality Custom Personal Design Applique Embroidery Badge Army Military Policeman Emblem Embroidered Patch for Cloths,Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector]. With an increase in pH,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [ Bale Tine,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt].Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,High Quality Guarantee LED Illumination Fiber Otoscope (AA batteries)]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555,3t 5m Good Design Chain Block,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa]. Thus,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture,Bulk Tape Measures High Quality Supplier,Custom 100% Cotton Towel with Embroidered Logo (35)]. In contrast, like-Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement[Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding,Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine].Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Free Standing Pylon Sign,Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH⁻) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H₂O)₆³⁺and Fe (H₂O)₆³⁺for aluminum and iron respectively [Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W, Seasoning,Industrial Filter Cloth / Filter Fabric / Nonwoven Needle Felt for Dust,Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H₂O) by OH⁻ions to form soluble Al (OH)²⁺and Fe (OH)²which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006)].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12,Coffee Cup].220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan, a high requirement on pH,High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inPlastic Bucket Injection Mould. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

Name	Advantages	Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al₂(SO₄)₃·18H₂O	Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na₂Al₂O₄	Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part;4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China)	Often used with alum; high cost;Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al₁₃(OH)₂₀(SO)₄Cl₁₅	In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum	Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe₂(SO₄)₃	Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl₃.6H₂O	Effective between pH 4 and 11	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO₄·7H₂O	Not as pH sensitive as lime	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)₂	Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent	pH-dependent;Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter,OEM ODM Magnetic Smart Card Door Lock,Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle].Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machiningshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Programmable Digital Timer]. There are various types of organic coagulants,China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity.4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board(polyelectrolytes)Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy-ionic polymers [High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood,Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System].Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt.

Name	Formula	Typical properties	Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al₂(OH)₅Cl	PAC 23	* 23–24% Al₂O₃or 40–41% w/w ACH	Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe
	MEGAPAC 23	* 23–24% Al₂O₃or 40–41% w/w ACH
	ALCHLOR AC	* SG 1.33
	ALCHLOR AC	* 83–84% basicity
	PROFLOC A23	* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al₂(OH)₃Cl₃	PAC-10 LB	* 10–11% Al₂O₃or 20–23% w/w PACl	Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table
	MEGAPAC 10	* 10–11% Al₂O₃or 20–23% w/w PACl
		* SG 1.18
		* 50% basicity
		* 10.5% w/w Cl
		* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al₂(OH)_3.24Si₀.₁(SO₄)_1.58	PASS^®	* 10% Al₂O₃or 5.3% w/w Al	Forms flocs easily
		* SG 1.34
		* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate Fe₂(OH)_0.6(SO₄)_2.7	PFS^®	* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe₂(SO₄)₃	Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
		* SG 1.54
		* 10% basicity
		* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS,Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Custom Zinc Alloy Precision Die Casting Zamak Door Handles,Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor]. These include (1)Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 10³centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 10³centipoises [3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12,Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 10⁵, and medium and high when they are between 10⁵and 10⁶and more than 10⁶respectively [Mylar Ziplock Bags With Window,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand].

Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay.
Dispersions: In this case,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Injection Machine Price,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats,3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine,Earphone Bobbin Winder].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home,Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%]. For instance,Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Foldershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter,Non-Toxic,Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV].

Figure 7.
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler[ Wedding,Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Productsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formula	CD (mol %)	CD (meq/g)
C₃H₃O₂Na	100	10.2
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.75(C₃H₅ON)_0.25	75	8.5
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.50(C₃H₅ON)_0.50	50	6.1
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.25(C₃H₅ON)_0.75	25	3.3
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.1(C₃H₅ON)_0.9	10	1.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set.Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage[Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter,Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc.Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valveoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor.Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generatorshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

Polymer	Molecular formula	CD (mol %)	CD (meq/g)
PDADMAC	C₈H₁₆NCl	100	6.2
ECH/DMA	C₅H₁₂ONCl	100	7.3
CPAM	C₈H₁₆O₂NCl	100	5.2
CPAM	(C₈H₁₆O₂NCl)_0.5(C₃H₅ON)_0.5	50	3.8
CPAM	(C₈H₁₆O₂NCl)_0.25(C₃H₅ON)_0.75	25	2.5
CPAM	(C₈H₁₆O₂NCl)_0.1(C₃H₅ON)_0.9	10	1.2
Chitosan	C₆H₁₁O₄N.HCl	100	5.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday,Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof,Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuator]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [m.michemcel.com,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car GPS Navigation 1 DIN].

Furthermore,3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration,Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer,Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Cap]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Auto Wire Connector Terminals,Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair,Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve].Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Rental Electric Scootershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

Industries	Coagulant	Dosing	Performance	Reference
Pulp and paper	Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride	40 mg/l	93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity	[AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump]
Textile industry	PAC	25 mg/l	90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity	[Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf]
Dye wastewater	Polyferric chlorides (PFCs)	30 mg/l	55% reduction	[25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine]
Vegetable tannery wastewater	PACl (poly aluminum chloride)	60 mg/l	45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity	[4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch]
Palm oil effluent	PAC	0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l	99% SOG	[Folding Machine Belt Supplier & Factory]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150)].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System.

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Abstract

Keywords

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Sudesh Rathilal

From the Edited Volume

1. Introduction

Figure 1.

2. Chemical purification process

Figure 2.

Table 1.

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Figure 3.

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Figure 4.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

2.2.1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage

2.2.2 Temperature

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Figure 5.

2.2.4 Effects of pH

2.2.Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series

2.2.6 Ionic strength

3. Coagulants

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Table 2.

3.2 Organic coagulants

Table 3.

4. General characteristics of coagulants

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Figure 6.

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Figure 7.

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Figure 8.

Table 4.

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Table 5.

Figure 9.

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Table 6.

5. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

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