IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set,LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Milk Powder Doypack,Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine], sedimentation or flotation [Floor Finishing Machine Concrete Power Trowel Machine for Concrete Surface,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [1/2 High Quality Cr-V Quick Release Ratchet Handle Wrench, New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts]Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing[Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line,China Household Use Plastic Cap for Water Bottles,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women[Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal,Jqhsp-50*12 Trawl Winch with Automatical Spooling Double Braking]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30]. However,Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag,Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332),Brushless Dc Swimming Pool Pump]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry,Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation,High Quality Cctv Dvr]. Also,Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)],Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section[Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Girl′s Silk Dance Shoe Ballet Slipper Ballet Dance Costumes]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord].High Quality PU with Decorative Plaits and Fringes Ladies Handbagsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom].Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Disposable Femoral Transradial Medical Device Radial Catheter Introducer Sheath]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof,Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Best Shaver For Women]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inLightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with RibbonSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureLove Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps,Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Cnc Machine Part,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package,Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive,60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Toughened Railing Glass,China Eye Protection Masterbatch,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox].Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear),Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet . These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Melon Seeds Packaging Machine,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed]. Furthermore,2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable]. In a typical flotation process (Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields,Z707 Wedding Birthday Packaging Design Kraft Cheese Moon Take Away Cake Box Kraft Paper Box with Window].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp],OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China].Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [High Power Climbing E-Scooter with Easy-Kick Middle Stand and Large Carrier Toolbox (MNW),Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70)[Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inOEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover–Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery,Wall-Mounted Intelligent High-Efficiency Ventilation Purifier/Fresh Air Heat Recovery Ventilator]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inStc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor.Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table,Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100)]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [C Ku TV Satellite Dish Antenna C Band 210cm Ground Pole Mount Type Plastic Powder Coating Corrosion Protection Antenna,Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. In practice (Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Touch Screen Coil Nail Making Machine (Professional Factory)]. In flotation principle,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Warehouse Stackable and Hanging Storage Bin for Tool Parts,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand]. With an increase in pH,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer].PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Choker Necklace Jewelry]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube]. Thus,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter,American Standard Seamless Steel Pipe Line for API 5L Gr B X42 X46 X52 X56 X60 X65 X70 Psl-1/Psl-2,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. In contrast, like-230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q). This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator[40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant].China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [16 Gauge Galvanized Welded Wire Mesh, Snack Food Packaging,Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,High Quality Disposable Custom Barbecue 40cm Round Bamboo Skewer,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve,Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,Excellent Performance Ultrasound Bone Densitometer/ Trolley Ultrasound Machine Price].Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch, a high requirement on pH,License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine;Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation PumpOften used with alum; high cost;Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon,Cement Mixing Machine, Yoga Towel].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012),Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler].Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fittingshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Eiling Led Light]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Brand New Isuzu Giga Tractor Truck with 350, 380, 420, 460 HP.High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood(polyelectrolytes)Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch-ionic polymers [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill].Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,Telescopic Camera Jib Crane.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Usb Hub Adapter,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line]. These include (1)Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Advertising Wall Exhibition Booth Backdrop Banner Stand Pop up Display,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Aluminum Alloy Conductor Mc Power Cable,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,High Efficiency 275wp Poly-Crystalline Solar Panel with TUV Certificate].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making]. For instance,Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filtersshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,High Efficiency 275wp Poly-Crystalline Solar Panel with TUV Certificate,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration[ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip. Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Ringsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

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PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Custom Tempered Glass Top]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Switchable Smart Foil Pdlc Film,Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof].

Furthermore,High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [m.ok-agv.net,PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank].Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Manual 2 Gears Frequency Controlshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[battery charged toilet rides electric car for kids and adult]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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