IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Amusement Park Theme Park Aquatic Equipment Fiberglass for Combine Slide,Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080,Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type)], sedimentation or flotation [Wholesales Wine Empty 280ml Glass Drink Cold Whiskey Bottle,High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet ,Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Agricultural Equipment Parts Exporter Hot Sale Product,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch,High Stability Series High Power Inductor]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater]Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock[Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series,Double Layer Steel Roof Machine,Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid[China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,EPS Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine for Fast Food Box Making]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway,Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display]. However,Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors, Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing,Louver Window Glass]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface),Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding Surface,20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves,Epe Foam Tube Exctruder Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. Also,Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse, Sugar],Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag[Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing,Aluminum-Plastic Laminated Tube Production Line (XF-ZG)]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube,Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover,Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver].0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G)]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain,Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb].8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [China Online Digital Ph Sensor]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine,Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube,Kids Bike Race Medal Factory OEM/ODM Products]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAuto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting MachineSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureMetal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box,THK Bearing SSR20wxss]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [fujielevator-jp,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar,4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter,Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117),Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent,Diaz Hollywood Mirror, BOPP,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder].Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump),Swbf-17b6s 6 Die 6 Blow Bolt Former Machine, Bolt Machine, Screw Machine, Heading Machine, Multi-Station Cold Heading Machine, Automatic Bolt. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Diameter 38mm Black Tar Stud Link Anchor Chain,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border]. Furthermore,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box]. In a typical flotation process (OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Hot Sales Popular Carton Custom Softcover Book&Printing Service. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor,2018 High Quality Chicken Cage For Poultry Farm].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended],Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric,Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192)].High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Surgical Training Practice Suture Kit For Student Suturing Training,LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product[All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Pepper Sauce Packing Machine,Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205)) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inProfessional Small Packaging Boxes Design–PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer,Vehicle/Mobile Two Way Radio Antennas]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inPrice of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip.Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Wholesale Anti Wrinkle Under Eye Patches Eyelash Extension,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp]. In practice (Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench,China Factory Chromium Wear Resistant Steel Plates Grab Bucket Wear Resistant Liner]. In flotation principle,Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa,Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05)].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010,Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Photovoltaic Cable Manufacturers Cheap Price,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather]. With an increase in pH,Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage].Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke,Kawasaki Ninja 300 Plastics Factory & Manufacturer]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis, 1300mm]. Thus,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220,Square Welded Wire Mesh 1.2m X 30m Galvanized Mesh Roll,Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine]. In contrast, like-High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid[Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen,Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC].Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [ Automatic Bolt]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Electrical Pastry Press Machine Semi-Automatic Commercial Pizza Presser Dough Forming Machine,Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS,High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck,Disposable Custom Printed Round Base Paper Soup Bowl with Lid,Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration,17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch)].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet,ASA PVC Composite Roof Tile Making Machine / Plastic Glazed Roof Tile Extrusion Production Line].Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials, a high requirement on pH,Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117). Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inChina Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		FC Fiber Optics Adapter;Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm TractorOften used with alum; high cost;Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal,Wall Mounted Glass Clamp,Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price,Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe].Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Sg Sodium Gluconate Factory & Manufacturer]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck.B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman(polyelectrolytes)Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer-ionic polymers [Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover].Factory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59,33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve,High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Police Disposable Nylon66 Handcuff with Two Loop,Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine]. These include (1)Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B). This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Auto Wheel Hub Bearing, 4we6j,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023)].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter,Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [www.blockmachinechina.com,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light,Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67,Makute Li-ion Battery Cordless Drill 12V/18V/21V Power Drill].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [ HEC,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage]. For instance,Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottleshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet,Bonded Neodymium Magnet,Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED[Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face.7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut.Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear[Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home,100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold.Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Bladesoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers.Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Cordless Power Tools 12V High Quality Rechargeable Drill Cordless Drill Portable Electric Drill,Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets].

Furthermore,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing, T2/Tp2,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Products,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part,Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light].PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Spray Paint Booth Manufacturer Shot Blasting Machine Chambershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line)]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Digital Programmable Timer Switch]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector,Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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