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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil,Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Farm Storage Steel Structure Building,Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set,OEM Ad Player Inch Multi-Touch Ad Player 43 Inch on Alibaba Top Manufacturer LCD Digital Signage Outdoor Food Kiosk Design], sedimentation or flotation [1250 Mesh Plastic Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 Filler Masterbatch,All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve,Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Furniture Grade E1 Glue Plywood with Competitive Price, Rice,4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China)]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter]Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding Surface[Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service,Transparent Plastic PVC Playing Cards with Aluminium Box,Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Factory Price 0.5mm Clear Plastic Pet Film for Vacuum Forming[Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator,Color Galvanized Steel]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Good Price Automatic Liquid Sachet Juice Milk Drinking Water Pouch Filling Packing Packaging Machine,3 in One Portable Mini Car Negative Ion Air Purifier]. However,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier,Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear,Soft Pvc Roll]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners,High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine,Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Custom-Made Gas Spring Strut with Iron Head,New Design Printing Fireproof Colorful PVC Wall Panels for Bathroom Decoration Material]. Also,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger,Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room,Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses],60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light[High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine,www.dgls-tech.com]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W,Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal].100% Natural Anti Wrinkle Happy QBEKA Protein Peptide Snail Serum for Aging Skinshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine,Best Quality Lightweight Aluminum Composite Panels,Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory].Affordable Price 7005, 7022, 7050, 7475 Aluminium Round Alloy Pipe, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [m.hyrubbers.com]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures,98 Smart Board IR Iwb Interactive Whiteboard LED LCD Screen for Education and Meetings]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Portable 20g Ozone Generator for Water Purifier,Fire Fighting Safety Boots]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inGrey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized PipeSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureDurable Stage Lifting Tools High Quality PA Series Mini Electric Wire Rope Hoist 100kgs to 1000kgs with Trolley
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample,Axe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Adhesive Tag Manufacturers Cheap Price,Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel,Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine,Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System,2000L Stainless Steel Customized Commercial Customized Fermentation Tank,2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA),High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole,4*2 Dongfeng Refrigerator Truck].Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve),Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [tiger-water-filter,Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List]. Furthermore,Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing]. In a typical flotation process (Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Ventilation Axial Fan for Cooling System. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste,Beverage Food Truck For Sale].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton],Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair,High Speed Passenger Elevator].Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [0.1mm thickness FR4 PCB,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration[Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine,Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inNobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun–Xinjing Wide-Mouth Kitchen Glass Square Jar for Spice, Seasoning(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable,White Grille Replacement COB Dimmable LED Grille Light Fixture]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inBest Soft Airplane Quilt Supplier for Airline.2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts,Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8,Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.35L Electric Car Mini Fridge. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Hot Sale Empty Wine Glass Bottle for Gin/Rum,Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work]. In practice (Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym,www.namarubber.com]. In flotation principle,Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [ Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way,Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [High Quality Side Entry Bag Filter,Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill]. With an increase in pH,50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring].2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry,100 PCS/Lot Soft Spines Bump Delay Lock Fine Penis Sleeve Cock Ring Sex Toys Penis Ring for Men]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [ 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine,580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid]. Thus,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type,Ductile Iron Grooved Pipe Fittings Female Pipe Fittings,High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding]. In contrast, like-1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material[High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers,Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks].Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700)]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [HDPE Bottle Auto-Deflashing Blow Moulding Machine,RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16)]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler,2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture,Bathroom Laminate Flooring B&Q,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,Portable Ozone Air Purifier Sterilized Equipment].China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products, a high requirement on pH,Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inPVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt,China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant;Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for SaleOften used with alum; high cost;Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment,High Quality HRC60 Round Nose End Mills for Metal,SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment,4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug]. Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurementshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Energy-Saving Home Elevator]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing.Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube(polyelectrolytes)Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter-ionic polymers [Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross].New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing,We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Rubber Flooring Outdoor Waterproof,Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand]. These include (1)Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e), and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Factory Sales Adjustable Tank Rotator,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Combination Shoe Display Rack.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Gold Supplier Welding Pipe Production Line for Export,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette,Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price,Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,Extrusion Pc Diffuser].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting]. For instance,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Priceshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,nicety-tool.com,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball[Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood, Graphitized Recarburizer]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003.Travel Duffel Bagshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK.Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag[Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps..Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate.High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrateshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Beacon Leather Bracelet,China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure].

Furthermore,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Premium 350mm Narrow U Diamond Cutting Disc for Quartz,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use].Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.m.tocnsupplychain.comshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Clear/Amber California Glass Bottle for Red Wine Storage Used Manuacturer]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange,Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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