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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace.Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube,Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,10inch 12V Universal Round Black Electric Car Radiator Cooling Fan]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [m.mjbagging.com,Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [ Seasoning,Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table,48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System], sedimentation or flotation [Mini Boat Rocker Switch Red Spst on off Push Button 3A6a 250V 15X10X17 mm,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Plastic Bucket Injection Mould,High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [918 Loaders,Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly,Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding]05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G[Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,Galaxy 7 Cases,PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves[Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System,Polypropylene Fibre for Commercial Slabs]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS,Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine]. However,Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor,3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price,8 Oz Plastic Jars]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12,Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner,Small Flexible 1.5 Ton Diesel Forklift with Low Price]. Also,OEM Service for Motorcycle Hoist in China, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats],Modular Prefab Hire Cabins[3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing,Double Color Plastic Parts for Electric Tool Handles Shell Plastic Injection Mold]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine,Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%].hanyingcultural.comshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter,Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV, Wedding].High Quality Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire for Protection Military Security Fence, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Vintage Pu Dining Chair]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Custom-Made Gas Spring Strut with Iron Head.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light,Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products,Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch,High Quality FDA 250ml 300ml 350ml 380ml 400ml 500ml 800ml Voss Style Juice Water Glass Bottle with Cap Wholesale]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inPn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant FabricSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels,Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Corrugated Cardboard Production Line Reel Stands,Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof,Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuator,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN,Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration,M6 Flange Nut,Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer,Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Cap,Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper].Large Damping Compression Spring for Stage Spring with Black Helix, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit),Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Body Lotion Mixer,Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair]. Furthermore,Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve]. In a typical flotation process (AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf,Home Use 500mg/Hr Ozone Generator for Vegetable Cleaning].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch],Tractor and Implements Disc Plough Harrow Mower Slasher 4 in 1 Front Loader Agricultural Equipments, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150)].Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,ISO and Ce Approved Digital Thermometer for Both Hospital and Home Use. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Adjustable Paracord Shackle,Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Front Service Ability Ha2.5 640*1920mm Poster Screen for Store Advertising,Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine[Wedge Pump for Women]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Plastic Bucket Injection Mould) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSmall Home Plastic Injection Molding Machine Overmolding Machine–Metal Stamping Manufacturing, Fastener Bending Stamping, Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel,Electric Pad Printing Machine T-Shirt Ball Pen Light]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inFlat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle.Shoebox Canopy Lamp 60W LED Light Evergy Saving 2835 Chips Corn Bulb, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone,Dental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush,Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [zetarindustry.com,Clear Black Empty 15ml 30ml 50ml 100ml Frosted White Square Glass Perfume Bottles,Front Service Ability Ha2.5 640*1920mm Poster Screen for Store Advertising]. In practice (High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball,Cfm11/510 Coated Frontlit Banner for Printing]. In flotation principle,Aluminum Height Adjustable Cane-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Stone Grinding Mill (YGM Series),Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels,2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Hing Quality Rubber O Ring in Motor High Pressure,Wholesale Scc638 High Efficiency Water-Based Cutting Fluid in Hot Sale]. With an increase in pH,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest,Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump].Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate,Molex 3 Position Header Male Blades Connector Solder 43160-3103]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Nano Titanium Dioxide TiO2 Powder,Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag]. Thus,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt,Pouch Butter Packaging Machine,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy]. In contrast, like-Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet[Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace,Ventilation Axial Fan for Cooling System].Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Ductile Iron ASTM A536 125lb/150lb ANSI Rising Stem Gate Valve,Factory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59,New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [ Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine,Hot Sale Ladies Handbags Fashion Coin Purse Leather Wallet with Flower Printing,2/3/4 Wire White Black Housing 35W 40W 50W LED Track Light for Supermarket Store,RS-380 High Power DC Brushed Motor Cordless Screwdriver]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb,License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine,LC Duplex Fiber Optical Adapter].Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42, a high requirement on pH,Flexible Printed Circuit Board PCB Flexible Board. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inAutomatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [First Class Small Permanent Block Magnets,Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30;Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer MachineOften used with alum; high cost;FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps,Needleless Positive Pressure Infusion Connector Straight Type,Capsule Size 3 Empty Hard Gelatin Capsules 100% Bovine Gelatin Vacant Capsule].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller, 00cr20ni25mo4.5cu].Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switchshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Rapid Prototyping in Aluminum]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger.Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags(polyelectrolytes)Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor-ionic polymers [Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy,Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller].Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.RS-380 High Power DC Brushed Motor Cordless Screwdriver
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality,Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [PE,Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid]. These include (1)High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness,05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G,Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Amusement Water Park Water Bike Trike for Adults and Kids Games,Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine,Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder,Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332)(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [10ml bottle empty, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity,2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors),Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake,Screw Neck Square Perfume Empty Bottle].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle,Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire]. For instance,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Boothshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine,China Factory 2-3 Axles 30-60m3 LPG Tank Truck for Sale,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture[Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h). This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System.Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kitshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting.Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set[Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05).Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Componentsoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags.a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill,High Speed Small Brushless Motor,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Brilliant Oval Acrylic Rhinestone Napkin Ring for Wedding Favor, SMD LED Soldering Machine].

Furthermore,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Knee Support Compression Sleeve Protector Pads,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale].Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Functional Fitness Equipmentshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Bluwat Bwd-01 Strong Decoloring Agent Coagulant for Waste Water Treatment]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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