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20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen.Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Manual Fabric Sample Cutting Machine,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine], sedimentation or flotation [5 Bars Farm Gate,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Compressed Springs Clips For Sale,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator]Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321)[ Snack Food Packaging,Crystal Rfid Glue Epoxy Tag Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button[PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,Calcium Chloride 74% Flake Suppliers for Sale]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve,Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light]. However,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,5mm High Quality Wall Mounted OEM Bathroom LED Mirror with Bluetooth]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [ Yoga Towel,5ml Aluminum Sprayer Perfume Bottle with Open Window (APB-14)]. Also,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012),Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler,Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting],72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine[Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,Hydraulic Offshore Marine Deck Crane]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line].Popcorn Weighing Food Detergent Powder Packing Machineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return].3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [m.vibratemotor.com]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,5 Star Hotel Pillow Top Royal Pocket Spring Mattress-Spring Mattress]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBecu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
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Coagulant qualityTemperature50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Duosida CCS Combo 1 IEC 62196-3 150A DC CCS1 Socket Inlet Ce Approval,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making,Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount,Korean Male Hydrating Silk Sleep Mask Smooth Nourishing Cotton Face Mask Sheet with High Quality,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W, Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings].a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing),Food Waste Granules Making Organic Fertilizer Machine, Granulator Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Din Gate Valve,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor]. Furthermore,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light]. In a typical flotation process (304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Custom Tempered Glass Top,Edge Batten Press Suppliers for Sale].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings],Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW),Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof].Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack

Polymer molecular weight (MW)LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Antique Brass Tables Lamp,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt[Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)–Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes,Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inDeluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar.Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Stainless Steel Pipe and Stainless Fitting,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance,Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive]. In practice (Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Wholesale Rectangle Illuminated LED Light Bathroom Mirror with Digital Clock for Hotel]. In flotation principle,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric,10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [ 304,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Coaxial Cable for CATV and Satellite (RG6U-F660BV),Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine]. With an increase in pH,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes].Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,Rugged UHF Passive RFID Tag for Office Building Laptop Tracking]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh]. Thus,Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale,m.ycwelding.com,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence]. In contrast, like-ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun[Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale,Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace].Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Travel Duffel Bag, Foldable Weekender Bag with Shoes Compartment (grey)(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Pet House Plush Pink For Pet Dog And Cat,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine,Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men,ISO Factory of Herrenknecht Tunneling Twin Double Disc Cutter,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine,Smart Home System Fingerprint Face Recognition ID Card Door Lock].Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block, a high requirement on pH,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBest Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA,Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine;5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery ChargerOften used with alum; high cost;Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale,Tractor Wiring Harness,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone].Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Homeshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Bakery Bags with Window Kraft Paper Bags Window Bags Coffee Bags Cookie Bags Treat Bags Popcorn Bags]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes.5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC(polyelectrolytes)Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine-ionic polymers [Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale,Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle].2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Kiosk Keypad,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element]. These include (1)DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Tractor with Trailer,2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display,Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#),Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Custom Fashion Woven Badge Puff Sew Iron on Clothes Embroidered Emblem Us Military Police Label Fabric Garment Felt Sequin Pants Embroidery Patches with Design,Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic,Specifically Designed Car Tapered Roller Carbon Steel Bearing 30222].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag,Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel]. For instance,PS Foam Plate Making Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light,Nbr Reclaimed Rubber High Quality Supplier,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link[Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D, Granulator Machine]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm.Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furnitureshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface)[Best Portable Solar Charger Suppliers for Sale].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord.Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor[China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes,Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light.Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plantoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker.Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mmshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [50*100]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System,Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205),Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Aluminum Household Step Ladder.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [m.lowcled.com,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts].

Furthermore,Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [China High Quanlity 24 Pin Type C USB Cable Adapter Connector,New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press,Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case].CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.A3 T-Shirt Printer Machineshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Color Coated Steel Coil]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Stainless Steel Precision Guide Column]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,THK Bearing SSR20wxss, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,One Wheel Hovershoes, Hoverboard and Electric Skatboard. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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