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Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Tractor Haul off Unit/Pipe Puller.Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor,Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,High Speed Small Brushless Motor. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid,Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Custom Country Flag Embroidered Patches/Custom Embroidered Emblem with Hook and Loop (YB-e-042),High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers,Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700)], sedimentation or flotation [Strong White Elastic Spandex Yarn for Diaper Material,RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16)]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler,2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Autoclave Pressure Vessel,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed,Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side]Supermarket PVC Plastic Shelf Talker Adehsive Data Strips for Shelf[Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,Cnc Laser Cutting Machine For Tube Manufacturers Cheap Price,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve[Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment,Rechargeable 510 Vaporizer]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment]. However,ISO and Ce Approved Digital Thermometer for Both Hospital and Home Use, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement,Natural Citrus Seeds Extract Limonin 90��% / Citrus Seeds Extract]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet,Casting Timone Cultivator Point/ Blade for Agricultural Machinery Tillage Use]. Also,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand,Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico],Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover[Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress,m.bolionfpc.com]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700)].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use].www.cnvegeprotein.comshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price,Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe].Front Service Ability Ha2.5 640*1920mm Poster Screen for Store Advertising, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [5 Ton Electric Hoist]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Customization! Bdy380CD Horizontal Directional Drilling Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Corrosion Resistant Adjustable Plastic Pedestal]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFactory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Plastic Bucket Injection MouldSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureMetal Stamping Manufacturing, Fastener Bending Stamping, Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [ Graphitized Recarburizer,Travel Duffel Bag]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Reinforced Corner Brackets Factory OEM/ODM Products,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Dear Lover Women Tankini Set with Boyshort Swimsuit Swimwear,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer].Shoebox Canopy Lamp 60W LED Light Evergy Saving 2835 Chips Corn Bulb, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)),Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Brewpub Equipment Factory OEM/ODM Products,China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure]. Furthermore,Aluminum Height Adjustable Cane.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate]. In a typical flotation process (Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks,Custom Cheap Plastic Silicone Wristband with Embossed Logo].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator],Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use].Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Factory Supply Europe Popular Modern Design Interior COB LED Wall Light,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch[Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V,Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inPrepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile–Flexible Printed Circuit Board PCB Flexible Board(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,Mechanical Memory Structure Height Limit Switch for Tower Crane]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inProfessional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange.High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box,Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [flat 200ml cold brew coffee drinking bottle,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board]. In practice (FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe,Stainless Steel Companion Flange]. In flotation principle,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [www.fldfilter.com,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video]. With an increase in pH,Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print,Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs].Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,Children Indoor Playground]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree,Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid]. Thus,Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,Metal Machining,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement]. In contrast, like-Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home[Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W].C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,RS-380 High Power DC Brushed Motor Cordless Screwdriver.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Four Wheel Skateboard,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen,Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws,Dynamo Led Bike Light,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket,China multi jet dry type small Dn15-20 water meter].Custom-Made Color Animation Tag Color Leather Tag Can Be Waterproof, a high requirement on pH,HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising;Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with SensorOften used with alum; high cost;Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332)
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector,Pneumatic Connector Hand Valve,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)].Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cableshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Best Selling 11.0 Gallon Reverse Osmosis Tanks with Fix Membrane Metal Body]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h).Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System(polyelectrolytes)Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine-ionic polymers [Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type),China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal].Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder,100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05)
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [PP Packing Band Strapping Belt Tape Plastic Production Line,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder]. These include (1)Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [2017 Metal Sports Medal for Marathon Medal Gift, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Custom Ceramic Mug,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Elight Shr Xenon Flash Lamp IPL Crystal Hair Treatment E Light 3 in 1 Beauty Machine.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Ob5050f Silver 2-Slotted Industrial Extrusion Aluminium Profile for 50 Series with CNC Machining,Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Aluminum Household Step Ladder]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine,Compatible Spacelabs 714-0018-00 NIBP Interconnect Hose].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory]. For instance,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zippershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels,chinacoinsandpins,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet[High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment.High Quality Shaft Bearing Sealshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Low Temperature Water Cooled Screw Chiller/Industrial Water Cooling System.Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010[Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine.Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bagoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter.Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Materialshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Hangtag Card Packing Machine,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV].

Furthermore,Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth,Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [12v 40a Auto Relay,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [ for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing].1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.China Pe Tarpaulin Factoryshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Product Design and Molding]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Heavy Duty Steel Warehouse Storage Pallet Racking]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Ss 904L, 00cr20ni25mo4.5cu, Uns N08904, En 1.4539 Stainless Steel Sheets/Plates/Strips, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Bipolar Hall Sensor,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023). This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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