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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades,Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [ISO Programmable High Low Temperature Environmental Test Chamber,Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports], sedimentation or flotation [Sand Castings by Gray Iron Material,Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [ T2/Tp2,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Hasco Headed Press Punch,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole,Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part]2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale[Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,Bearing Bronze Bush High Quality Supplier,PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line)]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Custom Printed Plastic Die Cut Handle Bag with Side Gusset[High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color,Chinese Bicycle Tires.]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector,Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes]. However,Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine,High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,High Quality D400 GRP / SMC / Fiberglass / Composite Lockable Watertight Round Manhole Cover and Frame BS En124]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women,7HP Gasoline Wood Splitter Machine with Ce (JP-GL34T)]. Also,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising,High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction,Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type],Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support[Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500),China Laser Sight Module Line Beam]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5),Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use].Stainless Steel304/316 Fast Connection Ring Hook for Building Hardwareshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine].Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [for Mercedes-Benz Truck Brake Disc 9754230012/9754230612/9754230312]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [One Wheel Hovershoes,GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions, Bright Surface for Furniture]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves,Foldable Dog Car Seat Cover Hammock For Pets]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFactory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E CigaretteSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureMicrofiber Cooling Towel for Sports
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa,High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Factory Semi-Automatic Glass Lifting Machine Glass Loading Machine,CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone,Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop,Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube,72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine,Modified Pa6 Granules,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch,Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump,BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton].1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp),5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Hand Tools Q235 Heavy Duty Manual Nail Gun Staple Gun with Staples,Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor]. Furthermore,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk]. In a typical flotation process (FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube,Multifunction Intelligent LED Power Meter].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel],Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration,18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street].Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine

Polymer molecular weight (MW)2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [100m Long Hinge Joint Farm Fence Netting,900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket[Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series,Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inMechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves–Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Easy Installation 4FT Plastic Folding Picnic Table (M-X1804),Metal Sheet Stamping Parts]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine.Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping,En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Hockey Goal Net,Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel,China Supplier Automatic Straight Seam ERW Pipe Making Machine]. In practice (Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery,Bolts Nuts Factory OEM/ODM Products]. In flotation principle,New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon,Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Heat Transfer Sublimation Aluminum Sheet for Advertising Board,Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [High School Canteen Table,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks]. With an increase in pH,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids, Inductor].220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water,www.excaliburgenerator.com]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [DC100 Long Service Life Air Suspension Turbo Blower for Pneumatic Conveying,200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light, MCB]. Thus,High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [ Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags,Electric Ice Crusher Suppliers for Sale,Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts]. In contrast, like-Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part[Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade,ISO and Ce Approved Digital Thermometer for Both Hospital and Home Use].4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Corn/Rice Husk/Wood Hammer Mill for Sale,High Frequency Welding Pipe Roll Forming Machine,12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage,W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS,Torch MID Size SMT Wave Soldering Machine for PCB,Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V,62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks,High Quality D400 FRP Composite Lockable Waterproof Round Manhole Cover and Frame BS En124].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inFood Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use;Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with BoltOften used with alum; high cost;Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale,Easy Installation Non-Contact Capacitive Liquid Water Level Sensor,ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet].Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truckshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [China Industrial Heat Exchanger Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Coating Curing Oven]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale.Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers(polyelectrolytes)Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve-ionic polymers [High Quality Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire for Protection Military Security Fence,Doy Pouch Packing Machine for Spices].50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine,13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [2018 New X-ray Proof Door Silent and Speed,Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill]. These include (1)High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud,4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board,Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [High Quality and Strong Neodymium Block Magnet for Sale,High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card,Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap,High Quality Promotional Custom Alternate Black and White Blocks ID Badge Holder Polyester Lanyard].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Pull Reel,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale,Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [22kw AC Charger with Type 2 Interface,Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising,Continuous Automatic Puff Snack Extruder Machine].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price,1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject]. For instance,Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Armshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine,Auto Parts Glow Plug Fot Toyota Coaster Engine Part 19850-17020,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor[T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card,Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable.N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3.Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine[STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate,Oil Gas Line Pipe]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps.Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gaugeoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace.High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Personshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent,Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Metal Stamping Letter Punch Supplier & Manufacturer,Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle].

Furthermore,2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA). Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat,Factory Price 0.5mm Clear Plastic Pet Film for Vacuum Forming,Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Aluminum Alloy Frame 250W-500W Brushless Motor 36V/48V 10-15ah Lithium,Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [35L Electric Car Mini Fridge,Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder].Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.High Quality Backless Bras and Condom Vendor Machine for Importshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[5MP Outdoor Security Surveillance Night Vision H. 265 IP Camera]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05),EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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