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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts]. In a typical flotation process (Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof,corediamtool.com].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
12V Car Tail Light for Ranger. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO)(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Abstract Art Statue Mirror Polished Stainless Steel Sculptures,Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe[39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inDisposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set–Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V,Cnc Spinning Outdoor Lampshade]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [China Supply Erw Steel Pipe,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape]. With an increase in pH,Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate].Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord,Zhangjiagang Sevenstars PVC / UPVC Pipe Production Machine Line].Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry, a high requirement on pH,Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inGranite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals.
Dispersions: In this case,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing[Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction,OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital.Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Batteryshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Mesh Glitter,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook].Grey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Economical Oil-Immersed Power Transformer with Capacity of 50kVAshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Quality Strong Permanent Magnet AlNiCo, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Liyuan 4 Inch Stainless Steel Impeller Submersible Water Pumps. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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