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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12],Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts].Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)1.8m Height Hot Dipped Galvanized Chain Link Fencing(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Dahepack Powder Packing Machine Powder Filling Machine,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown,Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather[Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inPrefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand–Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats,China Wholesale Christmas Decoration Battery Operated Metal Candy Stick Pendant LED String Light]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve,Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator].CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal,Staple].OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping, a high requirement on pH,Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHaivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150). Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow,Wedge Pump for Women]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector
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ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
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Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Weichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Vp-0200 Intelligent Electric Valve Actuator Rotary Valve Motorized Actuator Low Torque Actuator for Ball Valve Butterfly Valve Quarter Turn Electric Actuator. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,DC100 Long Service Life Air Suspension Turbo Blower for Pneumatic Conveying[Factory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59,New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes. Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine,First Class Small Permanent Block Magnets,Corrugated Carton Box Nc Cutting Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [China Titanium Expanded Metal,HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller,Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality].Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.49shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Coffee Bean Packaging Plastic Bag, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry,Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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