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Four-Shaft Auto Polyester, BOPP, PE Film Slitting Machine-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012).Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1),CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone,7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [300L Jam Cooking Pot/Jacketed Kettle/Jacketed Pot for Fruit Jam,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils], sedimentation or flotation [Cabinet Door Making Machine Suppliers for Sale,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof,Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [School Bags Very Young Models For Kids，Superman Sleeping Bag,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector]Qk1338 Big Diameter Oil Pipe Turning Lathe, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine[BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps,vibrating screen exciter,Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder[High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Calcium Chloride Dehumidification From Air]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Toughened Railing Glass,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine]. However,Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox,CNC Machining Aluminum Pneumatic Inlet 2 Ports Air Quick Exhaust Valve]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber,Aluminum Foil Hat]. Also,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp],Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine[General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts,Hand Operated Aluminum Manual Sheet Metal Bending Folding Machine]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover].Circular Magnetic Lifter for Steel Scrap Lifting Machine MW5 - 70L/1shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor,New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table].EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [High Quality Stainless Steel Water Storage Tank]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Ice Maker Dispenser]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFlow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)Suspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureGeyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Bus Transmission Gear Box,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,Top Producer Vintage Fashion Custom Sunglasses Women Men,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine].Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [DIN1480 Turnbuckle Hook&Hook,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter]. Furthermore,Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. In a typical flotation process (40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,Gps Hunting Camera 4g].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [ Snack Food Packaging],High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping].Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [China Antminer Psu 1800w,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price[Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inForged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve–AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light,Energy Saving Poach Pot]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube.Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [9006 Car Led Bulbs,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel]. In practice (Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler,ISO 9000 Approved 24V Latest Design Brush Motor]. In flotation principle,Embroidered Patch, Iron on Patch, Custom Patches, Embroidered Name Patch-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [321 Stainless Steel Band,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer]. With an increase in pH,2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier].Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Cnc Machining Spare Parts For Led Tv]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric]. Thus,OEM Ad Player Inch Multi-Touch Ad Player 43 Inch on Alibaba Top Manufacturer LCD Digital Signage Outdoor Food Kiosk Design.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,4.0MP HD IR Waterproof Bullet Ipc,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton]. In contrast, like-3 in One Portable Mini Car Negative Ion Air Purifier. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,High Efficient Lint Remover Sticky Roller[2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts].China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Hyaluronic Acid Injections Supplier & Factory,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making,Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,Cheap Throw Pillows,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W,Factory Supply 150kn Automatic Steel Thread Rolling Machine].Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine, a high requirement on pH,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Sale;1.8m Height Hot Dipped Galvanized Chain Link FencingOften used with alum; high cost;Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light,Customized PE Coated Printed Greaseproof Hamburger Wrapping Paper,304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Custom Tempered Glass Top,Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928].New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Ringsshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [R&R]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer.Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality(polyelectrolytes)Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet-ionic polymers [Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW),Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof].New Pop Design Aluminum Clip in Ceiling for Interior Decorative,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube,Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Popular Cement Paver/Hollow Block Machine in India
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Supplier Automatic Straight Seam ERW Pipe Making Machine
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Mobile Phone Finger Stand Holder with Strong Adhesive.,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)]. These include (1)D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Carbon Steel ANSI B16.5 A105n 150# Plate-Type Flat Flange Dn 50,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance,Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Stone Grinding Mill (YGM Series).

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Multi-Functional Slimming Equipment RF Cavitation Diode Laser System-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [elderly alarm,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric,10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System,PPGL Corrugated Steel Roofing Color Coated Metal Roof Sheet].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [ 304,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088]. For instance,Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine,Custom Logo Design Bracelet Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts[Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping.Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bagshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262).35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer[220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve.Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essenceoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand.Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesaleshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Fiber Optic Polyester Swab,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine].

Furthermore,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [AGM Smart Phone,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall,Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA].Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.China Adult Colouring Bookshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Roll Permanent Magnetic Particle Separator]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,China Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone,Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Weichai Engine R6105izld Green 40kw Canopy Type Diesel Generator Set(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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