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Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Bbq Set Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand], sedimentation or flotation [cnmirant.com,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [China On Grid Solar Inverter,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter]Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil[Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise,Furniture Classic Sideboards,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price[Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [ Snack Food Packaging,Cheap Automatic High Quality Hospital Interior Doors]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping]. However,Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,3.5 Inch Sb3.0 Hdd Docking Station]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve,Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,Steel Scraps Electromagnetic Lifter MW5-150L/1]. Also,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon],ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market[ Yoga Towel,Arm Monitor Stand]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012),Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler,Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray].Cnc Ice Carving Machineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line].Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Clothes Hanger Tag Suppliers for Sale]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,ABS Material Mini Snow Shovel for Fraiger Home Use 9001]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inPolyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum StripSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureQpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [www.cnbdlift.com,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Vsop Brandy,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making,Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W].UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount),Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [P4 Indoor LED Signs for Business for Stage Concert Glass Window See Through Transparent LED Signs,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel]. Furthermore,Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W]. In a typical flotation process ( Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing,Durable EVA Kids Clogs Sandals with Many Colors for Choice].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light],High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate,Custom Tempered Glass Top].Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Copper Alloy with Phosphorus Brazing Rods Welding Rod,Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad[New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type,2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inAir Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)–PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,Hy1002 Mixer Shower Set]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inLED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price.15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058),PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Pop up Square Soccer Goal,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine]. In practice (High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber,Outdoor Circuit Breaker]. In flotation principle,Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance,Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Precision Milling Machining CNC Billet Aluminum Machined Parts,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System, 304].Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088,Polyelectrolyte Cationic]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes]. Thus,Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,200n Tooling Box Cap Gas Lift Strut with Plastic Ball,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD]. In contrast, like-8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Hard Plastic Blank Phone Case, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent[Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh].Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Popular Factory Direct Sale 5t Welding Turning Roll,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa,Phytosterols China,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men,Turn-Key Fully Automatic Commercial Yogurt Machine Commercial Yogurt Maker Jimei Commercial Yogurt Making Machine Jimei].New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag, a high requirement on pH,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price;Food Trailer Catering Trailer Food Truck +Furniture Set, Service Food TruckOften used with alum; high cost;Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine,Custom Shaker Bottle,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA,Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil].Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Saleshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Compact Refrigerated Display Fridge]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W.25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine(polyelectrolytes)Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine-ionic polymers [2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop,Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration].Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC),European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone,Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Motorized Ball Valve,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale]. These include (1)12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle,Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Cookware Home Appliance PCB & PCBA Factoy in China,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element,Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [12V Car Tail Light for Ranger,Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [PA-461 The Smallest and Most Elegant Curtain-Pattern Infrared Detector,2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display,Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#),Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger,Somatostatin Gmp Provider From China].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss]. For instance,Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lightingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic,Factory Aluminum Pipe ASTM 3003,Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace[Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel,PS Foam Plate Making Machine]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve.Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Lightshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction.Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights[Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin. Granulator Machineoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount.Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furnitureshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch,Dereike 2.2kw Side Channel Blower Ring Blower Air Blower Turbo Blower Centrifuge Blower for Sewage Treatment Plant,Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,CL1C-GW123 Comlom PC Water Bottle, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Steel/Metal/Wire Stand Rack for Display (SLL-V012),50*100].

Furthermore,Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Dense Well Block for Slide Gate System,Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205),Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Dia1.8*8 Industrial Wood Treatment Equipment,Slot Bolt/Phillip Bolt/Pozidriv Bolts/Hexagon Socket Bolts].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Wheel Loaders Drive Axle Parts 100-27-00030 Floating Oil Seals,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad].Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Clothing To Prevent Mosquito Bites Supplier & Manufacturershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[www.haizhilimachinery.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter,Color Coated Steel Coil].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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