IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Auditorium Chair With Armrest,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration], sedimentation or flotation [www.skyhammertools.com,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery,Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Industry Grade Sodium Gluconate Water Treatment Chemical Concrete Admixture Cement Additive Steel Surface Cleaning Agent Water Quality Stabilizer,New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100)]Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W[Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Women′s Portable Makeup Bag Set Champagne Colour,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate[Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse,Soft Ice Cream Machine]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk]. However,Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand,m.agapassworld.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Cast Iron Pipe Nipple]. Also,Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter],Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale[Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise,Clevis Slip Hook H331 A331]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [ Snack Food Packaging].Inclined Belt Conveyor for Space Savingshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System].40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Accepted OEM PVC Binding Strap Cable Strap with High Performance]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve,Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,Cable Cutting Tools]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet ProductsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureXinjing Wide-Mouth Kitchen Glass Square Jar for Spice, Seasoning
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Hydrogen Beauty Machine,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012),Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler,Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,High Precision CNC Aluminum Turning/ Turned Knob Parts for Auto,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer].2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line),35L Electric Car Mini Fridge. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Auto Screen Changer For Pp Extruder,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier]. Furthermore,Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo]. In a typical flotation process (Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,Corner Bracket].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price],6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting].2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Sfp Fiber Modules,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column[CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inBest Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital–Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Hydraulic Press Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inSteel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making.High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Galvanized Iron In Spool Staple Wire,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W]. In practice ( Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing,Glass Filler Faucet]. In flotation principle,Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor,100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate,Custom Tempered Glass Top]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [China Solar Panel Solar Cell Photovoltaic 300W Hot Sell,Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)].Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,Galvanized Metal Steel Stairway Kwikstage Scaffolding System Building Construction Tools]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)]. Thus,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes,febwebbing.com,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar]. In contrast, like-New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing[Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank].We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Yto Engine 100HP 110HP Farm Tractor with Front Loader,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance,Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Polishing Stainless Steel Water Filter Housing in PP Cartridge,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System, 304].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088,86 Inch LCD Display All in One Digital Smart Touch Screen Interactive Electronic Whiteboard for Educational Equipment].Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inSemi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Combination Shoe Display Rack; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication;Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel CoilOften used with alum; high cost;Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,Decorative Hanging Lighting,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh].John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Saleshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [I-Tech 5000HD Digital Echo Karaoke Power Amplifier]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape.Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003(polyelectrolytes)Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall-ionic polymers [Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale].Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps.
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Indoor or Outdoor Green Palm LED Christmas Fairy Lights,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK]. These include (1)Neoprene Elbow Support, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine,Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [125kHz Promotional Waterproof Plastic Hard Card Key Fob T5577 RFID Epoxy Tags,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality,Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Customized PMMA PC High Quality Aluminum Profile with Flex Strip for LED Linear Light Wall Lighting for Decoration and Commercial,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall,Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil,Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale,Car Charger For Car].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop,Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration]. For instance,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphoneshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home,UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62)[Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle,Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming.Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jackshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile.Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67[NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element,Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set.12V Car Tail Light for Rangeroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder.Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bagshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant,Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#),Stainless Steel Pipe Holder /Pipe Hanger]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Palm Coated Gripping Safety Working Latex Gloves Rigger Safety Gloves,Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding].

Furthermore,China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss,Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting,Mannay 2018 New Arrvied Whitening and Brighten Face Cosmetic]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [www.yihui-press.com,Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [PS Foam Plate Making Machine,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light].Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Comfortable Children Apparel Terry Towelling Boy T-Shirtshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[ Granulator Machine]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[accessoires]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [China Modular Luxury Movable Shipping Container Beautiful Villa House with Bathroom Tiny Modular Homes,Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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