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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder]. In a typical flotation process (Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV,FRP Vessels].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ Wedding]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Hpzmflb Energy Saving High Lumen IP65 Outdoo LED Flood Light],Wedge Pump for Women, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products,Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter].Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,P10 Video Outdoor Full Color Advertising LED Display. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [High Quality Oxalic Acid CAS 144-62-7 with Best Price,Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men[Pn10 Dn300 CF8m Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHonda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator–Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels,Canvas Water Discharge Hose PVC Lining Fire Hose]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine,4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch].Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Dental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels,Pig Farm Pig Farrowing Crate Pig Equipment].Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321), a high requirement on pH,Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Wholesale Scc638 High Efficiency Water-Based Cutting Fluid in Hot Sale,Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt[Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy,Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus.Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Qualityshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine,Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42,PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [4we6j,Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth].Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Blow Mold Customshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Travel Duffel Bag, Foldable Weekender Bag with Shoes Compartment (grey). This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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