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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price,1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Paper Printing,Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes,T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card], sedimentation or flotation [Multi Color Changing APP Smart Bulb Remote Control RGB Color Changing Lamp WiFi LED Light Bulb,Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate,Oil Gas Line Pipe]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Hospital Bed For Patients,Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge,High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes]China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products[PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer,Electric Portable Small Piston Air Compressor, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit[Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat,Bakelite Handle Machine Tool Accessories]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Factory Price 0.5mm Clear Plastic Pet Film for Vacuum Forming,Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1]. However,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm,Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles,Flange Globe Valve]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [35L Electric Car Mini Fridge,Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera,www.antpackaging.com]. Also,High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor,Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05)],Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale[EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights,www.cablecreation.com]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery,Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display,Tractor and Implements Disc Plough Harrow Mower Slasher 4 in 1 Front Loader Agricultural Equipments].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09)].Control Globe Type Valve With Diaphragm Actuatorshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine,Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring].Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [m.sdjtec.com]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [OEM Service for Motorcycle Hoist in China,Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008,Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration,Grey Wood Tv Stand]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inWholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and TubeSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureDh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70)].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose,Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Small Metal Laser Cutting Machine Price Fiber,Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100,230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q),Diamond Hand Polishing Pads with Resin and Electroplated Type,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale,Commercial 2 Door Kitchen Under Counter Refrigerator,25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner,PVC Shrink Sleeve Label for Drinking Water Bottle,Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket].2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part),We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [lanyard strap,Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit]. Furthermore,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision]. In a typical flotation process (HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole,Safety Edge Sensor for Agv Automated Guided Vehicle].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator],Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e), whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Durable Stage Lifting Tools High Quality PA Series Mini Electric Wire Rope Hoist 100kgs to 1000kgs with Trolley,Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller].Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Combination Shoe Display Rack. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [China Led Bulb Oem Odm Factory,Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb,Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball[Dongfeng 10000L Sewer Jetting Truck Industrial Sewer Jetting Truck]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape,Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCustom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men–Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication,Hip Pop Snapback Cap Hat]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

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Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Low Frequency High Quality Amplifier Heatsink Power Amplifier Fp14000 Professional AMPS,Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment,Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt]. In practice (Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Large Damping Compression Spring for Stage Spring with Black Helix,Bicycle From China]. In flotation principle,Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps.-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price,Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [3d Printer Supplier South Africa,Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Neoprene Elbow Support

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain,Android Video Interface Car GPS Navigation System for 2014-2018 Year Mercedes-Benz C-Class A205].Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould,12.5inch Walking Measuring Wheel with Counter (WW-MW219-7)]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump,Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine]. Thus,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder,Gymnastics Inflatable Trampoline Tumble Track Mattress,2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner]. In contrast, like-Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale[ Hollow Section,Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear].Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62)(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Die Cutting Machines for Children′s Cap Making,Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon,EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler,m.tjhstech.com,2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant,PE HDPE PP PPR Mine Pipe Extruding Manufacturing Line Machine].High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming, a high requirement on pH,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inChina Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine,New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#)]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile;Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67Often used with alum; high cost;Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger,Astm A53 2 Inch Steel Pipe,ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery,Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic].Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handleshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [m.gz-sourcing.com]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal, Various Colors.Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t(polyelectrolytes)China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires-ionic polymers [600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer,Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV].Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning,Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Protective Roof Rubber Blocks
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room, HD Baby Monitor for Baby].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Bamboo Floor Lamp Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution]. These include (1)2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088,Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Medical Rubbish Disposal with Microwave Disinfection Equipment Hospital Rubbish Sterilizer 3,Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck,Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown,Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46).

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Custom Ceramic Mug, Two Tone Coffee Mug. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,PVC Steel Wire Reinforced Pipe Hose for Transfer Water Oil and Powder-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Memory Foam Pocket Spring Mattress From China Manufacturer,Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale,Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men,14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron,Stainless Steel 410 Wire].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder,Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers]. For instance,Rectangle 100 Ml Perfume Glass Bottle with Leather Decorationshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer,Low Handpiece,PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8[Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System,Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047)]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle.Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beamshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish.Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine[50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness.Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Coloroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine.Postboxshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Container House as Kinder Garden]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Sale,High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005),High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [www.dmgstainless.com,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen].

Furthermore,Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser,2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi,High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Home Fragrance Decoration 150ml Perfume Hotel Air Freshener Aroma Reed Essential Oil Air Diffuser,China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle,High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication].Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Different Size Capsuleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Sleeveless OEM Cotton Breathable Boys Printed T Shirt]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[ 420]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Solid Color Blackout Curtain]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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