Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh; Sudesh Rathilal

doi:10.5772/intechopen.84556

Abstract

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Keywords

coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification

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Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine*
- Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
- Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa

*Address all correspondence to:Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit@gmail.com

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

From the Edited Volume

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1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine,Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Waste Water Treatment Mechanical Bar Screen,Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box,Portable Laser Engraver 20W], sedimentation or flotation [Affordable Laser Cutting Machine Factory OEM/ODM Products,Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes,Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [12 Horsepower Gasoline Engine Concrete Distributor for Flooring Construction,Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram,33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment]Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower[Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face,Anthracite for Water Treatment,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe[Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Affordable Price 7005), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor,High Quality Tempered Frosted Glass]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing,Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part]. However,8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [New Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag,Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration,3600 Rpm Concrete Machinery Ride on Power Trowel Factory]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Plastic PVC (vacuum calibration cooling tank haul off cutter stacker) Pipe Extruding Machine,Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights,Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness,Trench]. Also,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1), Service Food Truck],Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves[Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine,High Quality Steel Pipe Coating]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED,Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools].

Figure 1.
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade].Triac Dimmable COB 7W 9W Recessed LED Downlightshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Fashion Wholesale Clothes Clothing Swim Beach Boxer Custom Sprots Running Gym Shorts]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric,Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape,Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete].Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Roof Sheet Cold Roll Forming Machine]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW).

Figure 2.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light,Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory,Customized Colored Flat Silicone Rubber O Ring]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder.

Coagulant characteristics	MOW characteristics	Physical characteristics
Coagulant type	Water quality	Flotation/settling time
Product Design and Molding	Suspended solids	Mixing intensity
Coagulant quality	Temperature	14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market
Coagulant lifespan	pH	Chemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilution	Alkalinity
	Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [ Black Excavator Track Rollers,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Fabric Reinforced Rubber Diaphragms for Big Sale,Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China,High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole,Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer,Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System,ABS RFID Key Tags Em/MIFARE Access Card,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine].Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack),Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [50 Foot Vga Cable Factory OEM/ODM Products,High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House]. Furthermore,Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet.

Figure 3.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration]. In a typical flotation process (Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621,401900-40-1 Raw Powder Andarine (S-4) Sarms-S4 for Muscle-Building].

Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror],JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Vital Injector,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne].High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Spare Parts Custom Injection Plastic Moulding Manufacturer,Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.High Quality Restaurant Booth Seating From Factory Sale, Booth Seating for Restaurant,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg[Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing,Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHigh-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel–Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1

qA=dQAE2

qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40,Aluminum Extruded Heat Sink with CNC Machining with Black Anodization for 3c]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring.Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [ Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324),Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container,Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Rsbm Excavator 1.7 Cbm Capacity Excavator Rock Bucket Excavator Part,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking]. In practice (Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W,Graphite Gasket For Sealing]. In flotation principle,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door,China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Stand Quality for Exporting Silver Aluminum Foil Tape Used Widely,2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof]. With an increase in pH,CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs Hormone. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit,Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock].Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer,Various Capacity Rotary Airlock / Star Unloader]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat,Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier]. Thus,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set,100% Virgin Polycabonate Sheet,LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V]. In contrast, like-Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches[Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw].Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Afen Pepsi Vending Machine Smart Vending Machine,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH⁻) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H₂O)₆³⁺and Fe (H₂O)₆³⁺for aluminum and iron respectively [Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce,Biology Histology Teaching Slides Factory OEM/ODM Products,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H₂O) by OH⁻ions to form soluble Al (OH)²⁺and Fe (OH)²which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [ New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts,Electronic Smd Pcb Assembly].UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna, a high requirement on pH,3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inTermway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

Name	Advantages	Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al₂(SO₄)₃·18H₂O	Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Four-Shaft Auto Polyester, BOPP, PE Film Slitting Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na₂Al₂O₄	PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping;Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables	Often used with alum; high cost;Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al₁₃(OH)₂₀(SO)₄Cl₁₅	In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum	Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe₂(SO₄)₃	Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl₃.6H₂O	Effective between pH 4 and 11	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO₄·7H₂O	Not as pH sensitive as lime	Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)₂	Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent	pH-dependent;Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate,Factory Sales Marble Sculpture Home Decoration Beauty Bust Statue Mfsg-77,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30].New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bagshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Slim Portable Flashlight Power Bank]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing.Qk1338 Big Diameter Oil Pipe Turning Lathe, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine(polyelectrolytes)Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder-ionic polymers [Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332),CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable].Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw,Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine.

Name	Formula	Typical properties	Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al₂(OH)₅Cl	PAC 23	* 23–24% Al₂O₃or 40–41% w/w ACH	Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard
	MEGAPAC 23	* 23–24% Al₂O₃or 40–41% w/w ACH
	ALCHLOR AC	* SG 1.33
	ALCHLOR AC	* 83–84% basicity
	PROFLOC A23	* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al₂(OH)₃Cl₃	PAC-10 LB	* 10–11% Al₂O₃or 20–23% w/w PACl	Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine
	MEGAPAC 10	* 10–11% Al₂O₃or 20–23% w/w PACl
		* SG 1.18
		* 50% basicity
		* 10.5% w/w Cl
		* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al₂(OH)_3.24Si₀.₁(SO₄)_1.58	PASS^®	* 10% Al₂O₃or 5.3% w/w Al	Forms flocs easily
		* SG 1.34
		* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate Fe₂(OH)_0.6(SO₄)_2.7	PFS^®	* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe₂(SO₄)₃	Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
		* SG 1.54
		* 10% basicity
		* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry,Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [HPMC Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose Additives,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. These include (1)900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058). This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 10³centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 10³centipoises [Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 10⁵, and medium and high when they are between 10⁵and 10⁶and more than 10⁶respectively [Bridal Wedding Rhinestone Crowns,Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting].

Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Hans Free Sample Stylish Lace Necklace.
Dispersions: In this case,Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Wood Cutting Sliding Table Saw with High Precision Plywood Cutting Machine Wood Working Machine Line,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils,Lithium Ion Aa Battery602040 600mah].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler]. For instance,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roofshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,Cnc Turning Stainless Steel,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment].

Figure 7.
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking[Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er,Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet.BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lampsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formula	CD (mol %)	CD (meq/g)
C₃H₃O₂Na	100	10.2
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.75(C₃H₅ON)_0.25	75	8.5
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.50(C₃H₅ON)_0.50	50	6.1
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.25(C₃H₅ON)_0.75	25	3.3
(C₃H₃O₂Na)_0.1(C₃H₅ON)_0.9	10	1.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator.Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System[Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge.Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesiveoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price.60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Lightshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

Polymer	Molecular formula	CD (mol %)	CD (meq/g)
PDADMAC	C₈H₁₆NCl	100	6.2
ECH/DMA	C₅H₁₂ONCl	100	7.3
CPAM	C₈H₁₆O₂NCl	100	5.2
CPAM	(C₈H₁₆O₂NCl)_0.5(C₃H₅ON)_0.5	50	3.8
CPAM	(C₈H₁₆O₂NCl)_0.25(C₃H₅ON)_0.75	25	2.5
CPAM	(C₈H₁₆O₂NCl)_0.1(C₃H₅ON)_0.9	10	1.2
Chitosan	C₆H₁₁O₄N.HCl	100	5.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Toughened Railing Glass]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Ro Water Purifier,Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear].

Furthermore,AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable,Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [China Plate For Baby,Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts].Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Laser 1000wshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

Industries	Coagulant	Dosing	Performance	Reference
Pulp and paper	Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride	40 mg/l	93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity	[Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China]
Textile industry	PAC	25 mg/l	90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity	[Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration]
Dye wastewater	Polyferric chlorides (PFCs)	30 mg/l	55% reduction	[Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction]
Vegetable tannery wastewater	PACl (poly aluminum chloride)	60 mg/l	45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity	[OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover]
Palm oil effluent	PAC	0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l	99% SOG	[Large Steel Casting Machine Equipment Base Bed Frame Sand Casting]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Embroidered Patch, Iron on Patch, Custom Patches, Embroidered Name Patch, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery,Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Abstract

Keywords

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Sudesh Rathilal

From the Edited Volume

1. Introduction

Figure 1.

2. Chemical purification process

Figure 2.

Table 1.

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Figure 3.

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Figure 4.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

2.2.Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System

2.2.2 Temperature

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Figure 5.

2.2.4 Effects of pH

2.2.7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080

2.2.6 Ionic strength

3. Coagulants

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Table 2.

3.2 Organic coagulants

Table 3.

4. General characteristics of coagulants

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Figure 6.

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Figure 7.

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Figure 8.

Table 4.

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Table 5.

Figure 9.

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Table 6.

5. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

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