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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine.Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve,Lightweight Concrete Panels Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Bake Cake Mold,Flexible Printed Circuit Board PCB Flexible Board]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Liyuan 4 Inch Stainless Steel Impeller Submersible Water Pumps,Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T),Hydraulic Oil Lube Oil Transformer Oil Diesel Water Separator (TYD-30)], sedimentation or flotation [Ce & FDA Approved Office Used Tooth Bleaching Whitening Kit,Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction,ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [yuyancable,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set,OEM Ad Player Inch Multi-Touch Ad Player 43 Inch on Alibaba Top Manufacturer LCD Digital Signage Outdoor Food Kiosk Design]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace]Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette[Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent,Hand Tool Cr-V Red Handle Diagonal Cutting Pliers,Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports[Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant ( Rice), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China),PVC Inflatable Jumping Air Track Mattress]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter,Colorful Paperback Softcover Children Book Printing Service]. However,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light,Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame,Wholesale Premium Quality Corn-Teeth Brass Teeth Zipper for Bag/Leather]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Gemstone Connectors Round Shape Gemstone Bezel Connectors,Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator,Good Price Automatic Liquid Sachet Juice Milk Drinking Water Pouch Filling Packing Packaging Machine]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [3 in One Portable Mini Car Negative Ion Air Purifier,Man Sport Hight Quality Joint Man′s Mesh Sneakers and Shoes]. Also,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier,Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners],5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier[High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine,Hot Selling for Sc Pneumatic Gas Cylinder - AD2020 - Zhuohui]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid,Custom-Made Gas Spring Strut with Iron Head,5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room].Halal Certificated Empty Vegetable Capsuleshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W].39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Sharp Diamond Wire for Granite Quarries]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube,Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal,Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine,18K White Gold Octagon Emerald Cut Moissanite Diamond Jewelry Engagement Ring]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBest Quality Lightweight Aluminum Composite Panels.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust CollectorSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Professional Precision Custom Made Metal Containers,98 Smart Board IR Iwb Interactive Whiteboard LED LCD Screen for Education and Meetings,Portable 20g Ozone Generator for Water Purifier,Grey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth,Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory,Commercial Steering Wheel Covers,Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample,Axe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes,Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel].Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners),2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [High Quality Plastic Injection Mould Maker,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine]. Furthermore,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System]. In a typical flotation process (2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole,Q345 Black Tube Welded Carbon Steel Pipe 2 Inch Sch 40 China].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [4*2 Dongfeng Refrigerator Truck]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve],Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List,2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing].Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [m.xt-bolt.com,Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt[Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inDC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan–High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton,Decorative Iron 60W Antique Copper Floor Lamp for Hotel Bedroom]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inModern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair.Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [High Speed Passenger Elevator,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale,Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [250 Watt High Bay Light,Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun,Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable]. In practice (Best Soft Airplane Quilt Supplier for Airline), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts,Matte Side Gusset Bag with Valve]. In flotation principle,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8,Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Extruder Machine Parts,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler]. With an increase in pH,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine,Weichai Open Type Rated Powe 300kw Diesel Generator with Wp13D385e200 Engine]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9,Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet,Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill]. Thus,Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality,2019 Hot Sale Light Casual Handmade Knit Sock Kid Shoes,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring]. In contrast, like-Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use[5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire].Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [18650 Battery Power Bank Machines,580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid,Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding,High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers,Bottle Pasteuriser,Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700),RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16),Land Scape Solar Light].Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers, a high requirement on pH,Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inRemote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment;Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature RiseOften used with alum; high cost;Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,30ml,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line].Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Boltshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Amazon Best Seller 600W LED Grow Light for Medical Plants and Greenhouse]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel.Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting(polyelectrolytes)Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders-ionic polymers [China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10,Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment].HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent,6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Disposable Bath Sponge,4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug]. These include (1)Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [ Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Square / Rectangular / Round Shape Galvanized Steel Pipe and Tube Whole Price,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand,Malleable Fittings Union].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [m.yxmembrane.com, Mexico,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve,Baby Feeding Glass Bottle with Nipple and Cover Cap].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use]. For instance,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigaretteshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,15kv 133% Insulation Level Tr-XLPE/XLPE Urd Power Cable Electric Cable,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace[Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System.8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lightingshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs.Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine[Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set.Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discountoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design.Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywoodshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [ Graphitized Recarburizer]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Travel Duffel Bag,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [6*197mm Biodegradable Disposable Wrapped Paper Drinking Straws,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449].

Furthermore,Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Aluminum Truss Canopy For Sale,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate].Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.DIP Waterproof P10 Outdoor Advertising LED Display Boardshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[crystal wedding strap]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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