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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display.Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Protective Roof Rubber Blocks,8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Bench Geared Head Auto Feeding Drilling Milling Tapping Machine (ZX45), Inductor]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water,DC100 Long Service Life Air Suspension Turbo Blower for Pneumatic Conveying,200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light], sedimentation or flotation [Stage Costumes Led, MCB] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [ Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts,Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Supply Pure 99% Crystal 13956-29-1 Cannabidiol Isolate Powder Cbd,ISO and Ce Approved Digital Thermometer for Both Hospital and Home Use,Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Frequency Welding Pipe Roll Forming Machine]GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet[12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller,Cbb65 Air Conditioner Capacitor 50uf,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll[W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V,Healthy Cast Iron Skillet/Grill/Griddle/ Cookware Bakeware/ BSCI LFGB FDA Approved]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer,Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks]. However,Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose,Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,Salon Shampoo Units]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale,ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light,100ml Glass Wine Bottle]. Also,275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck,High Quality Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire for Protection Military Security Fence],Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles[Doy Pouch Packing Machine for Spices,Mini Prism for Rail Tunnels]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine,13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags,Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud].Car Charger With Cable Supplier & Manufacturershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film,High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card,Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets].Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [25kg 50kg PP Woven Bag for Rice Sugar Fertilizer Cement Sand Packaging]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap,High Quality Promotional Custom Alternate Black and White Blocks ID Badge Holder Polyester Lanyard,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee,Types of Nylon Cable Gland M20 Ventilation Cable Gland Air Vent Plastic Air Bleed Valve Gland]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in22kw AC Charger with Type 2 Interface.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel ShoesSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [China Manufacture Mini Excavator Parts Hydraulic Rock Breaker Price,1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [High Quality Carbon Welding Electrodes Rods (E7018),Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm,Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes,T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card,Manual Heat Shink Sleeve Label Machine,Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1,N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machine,STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate].13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Oil Gas Line Pipe),Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Construction Safety Shoes Boot Manufacturers Cheap Price,Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge]. Furthermore,ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person]. In a typical flotation process (Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer,Alumina Ceramic Roller Kiln].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India],Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle,En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat].Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Diamond Cutting Tools,Factory Price 0.5mm Clear Plastic Pet Film for Vacuum Forming], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes[Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCustomized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm–Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles,China Pp Woven Laminated Bags]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in35L Electric Car Mini Fridge.Bipolar Hall Sensor, Ah3041, Speed Sensor, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market,Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Grade 9A Ethiopian Virgin Qingdao Hair Factory,1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor]. In practice (Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05)), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights,Uses Caustic Soda]. In flotation principle,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery,Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Tractor and Implements Disc Plough Harrow Mower Slasher 4 in 1 Front Loader Agricultural Equipments,Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09)]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Food Grade Flexible Plastic PVC Water Suction and Discharge Hose,(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine]. With an increase in pH,Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine].LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring,Quality Products From China]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [OEM Service for Motorcycle Hoist in China,Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008,Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags]. Thus,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration,C/Z Purlin Cold Roll Forming Machine,Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing]. In contrast, like-Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine[Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70),Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose].50*100, 50*200mm 3D Security Welded Wire Mesh Fence Panel.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Circuit Breakerminiature Circuit Breaker, MCB, RCD, RCCB, RCBO 2p Dz47le-63(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [China Colored Cookie Gift Box Packaging,Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100,230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q)]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Diamond Hand Polishing Pads with Resin and Electroplated Type,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale,China Metal Dice D6,25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [PVC Shrink Sleeve Label for Drinking Water Bottle,Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part,Melamine Round Dinner Plate].Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade, a high requirement on pH,4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inFine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision,HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street;Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door LocksOften used with alum; high cost;Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole,Car Rocker Switch Manufacturers Cheap Price,Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator,Durable Stage Lifting Tools High Quality PA Series Mini Electric Wire Rope Hoist 100kgs to 1000kgs with Trolley].Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chillershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [yunyangcosmetic]. There are various types of organic coagulants,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle.Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing(polyelectrolytes)Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women-ionic polymers [Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End),Dongfeng 10000L Sewer Jetting Truck Industrial Sewer Jetting Truck].Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery,Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine,Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Custom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men,Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Handheld Blood Pressure Aneroid Palm Sphygmomanometer,High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo]. These include (1)Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t,Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube,HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [America 12V 4pin Blade Trailer Plug,Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment,Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws,Large Damping Compression Spring for Stage Spring with Black Helix].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet -effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [All In One Led Street Light Factory OEM/ODM Products,Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price,Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector,Iron Steel Air Hose Reel].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section,Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain]. For instance,Android Video Interface Car GPS Navigation System for 2014-2018 Year Mercedes-Benz C-Class A205shows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould,High Glossy Strength Reflective Frontlit Flex,Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth[Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book.Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powdershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth.Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China[2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner, Hollow Section]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel.Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwearoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70).China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valveshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard,Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Manufactures Custom Cheap Outdoor Advertising Flag Factory Digital Printing Polyester Flag Banner Display Car Flag Hand Flag,2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable].

Furthermore,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors,Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Plastic Woven Membrane Tunnel Greenhouse for Chicken House/Animal Husbandry and Aquaculture,China Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#),Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger].Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Octadecylamine Supplier & Factoryshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Jumbo Glass]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer,Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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