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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Long Working Time Grinder with Pin Rod for Brittle,High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Heat Resistant Non Stick PTFE Coated Fiberglass Cloth,Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823,New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080,Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment], sedimentation or flotation [Roll Wet Magnetic Separator,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter,Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet ]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Weave Cord Diamond/Rhombus Chain Link Wire Fencing,Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Stability Series High Power Inductor]High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card[Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater,Liquid Wallpaper,Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone[Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale,Led Power Bank]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway]. However,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display,4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors,Barco De Pesca Pvc Pipe Cam]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [ Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing,LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface),Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding Surface]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste,Professional Manufacturer Fiber Optic LC Type Simplex Optical Adaptor]. Also,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves,5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier,ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse],Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape[ Sugar,Integrated Kitchen]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing,Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube,Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens].zetindentalshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G),Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain].Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Hot Sale Leapers Utg Sportsman Tactical Scenario Vestle]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine,Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type,One Component Good Performance Waterbased Exposure Waterproofing Coating]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inSUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Great Flavors Energy E Cig LiquidSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage,Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Natural Rubber Mat,THK Bearing SSR20wxss,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar,4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter,Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117),For Peugeot For Citroen,Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent, BOPP,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16)].Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder),7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [150W 300W 600W Fiber Optical Laser Welding Machine,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump]. Furthermore,Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border]. In a typical flotation process (Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc,Heat Lamp Bulb For Turtle].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation],Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended,Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric].Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Co2 150w Laser Cutter,Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192)], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine[LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL,Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inAll Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen–Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design,Top Fashion Spring Garden Toss Wooden Skittles Game for Outdoor W01d011]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

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Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Nrv Nmrv Motovario Style Right Angle Worm Motor Gear Box,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil]. In practice ( 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape,Automatic Pillow Food Biscuit Big Bag Packing Machine]. In flotation principle,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench,Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05),Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [OPP Printed Block Bottom Bags,Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents]. With an increase in pH,New SMT Desktop Reflow Oven, Puhui T-937, SMD LED Soldering Machine. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather,High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump].Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage,KA-7.5HP 116psi 24CFM Small Industrial Air Compressor Head]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis]. Thus,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [ 1300mm,Custom Cookie Stamp,High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220]. In contrast, like-New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit[Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine,Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen].100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Fruit Juice Production Line.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150)(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Wedge Pump for Women(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Car inverter Off grid 24V 1200W Modified Sine Wave Inverter, Automatic Bolt,Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,Pt100 Thermocouple Sensor,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor,0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch),Hot Coffee Cup].Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml, a high requirement on pH,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inSheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;P10 Video Outdoor Full Color Advertising LED Display; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		0.25, 0.30, 0.38, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire;All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating ScreenOften used with alum; high cost;Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine,Shockproof Rubber O Rings Rubber Cushioning Products,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price].Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Latheshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Solar Manufacturer]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment.Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine(polyelectrolytes)Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D-ionic polymers [Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol].Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light,China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve,Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover,CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Corn Extruder Machine,High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal]. These include (1)Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine,Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [300l Gasoline Air Compressor,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window, 4we6j].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023),Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Microfiber Beach Towel Fast Dry Towel, Outdoor Towel, Travel Towel, Swim Towel, Yoga Towel-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [4x4 Lift Shocks For Tundra,Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light,High Efficient Automatic Bread Crumbs Panko Processing Line].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67, HEC]. For instance,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cageshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,Teeth Whitening Pen with OEM Label,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent[Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping,Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321).165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Manshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts.72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine[7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080,Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser.100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroomoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment.Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Bladesshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler[Single Cavity Plastic Colorful Wine Cup Mouldings].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth,Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Manufacturer 18oz Tritan Fruit Sports Plastic Water Bottle,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports].

Furthermore,50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing, T2/Tp2]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Wholesale Custom Bubble Bag,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple,LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part].Food Waste Granules Making Organic Fertilizer Machine, Granulator Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Customized Metal Design Cut out Antique Sports 3D Half Marathon Souvenir Finisher Medalshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line)]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Return Conveyor Idler]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color,Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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