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304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold.Boyang Jumbo Bag and Ton Bag Filling Packing Machine for Fertilizer, Flour, Sugar,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Stainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch,Custom Ceramic Mug]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Metal Processing Machine,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Aluminum Household Step Ladder,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children], sedimentation or flotation [Phone Charger Near Me,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Professional High Precision Building Model and Figure Sculpture SLA Prototype 3D Printing Product,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine](Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine[JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,China Lift Grinder,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper[Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Home Office Use Digital Metal Safe Box]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame]. However,12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,Frame Assembly Machine Suppliers for Sale]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV,China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth,YAMAHA Flexibl Duct Kv8-M66e1-00X]. Also,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade],Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters[ for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent,Hot Selling Combined Type R404A Island Freezer for Frozen Food]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455].Harvest Machineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Product Design and Molding]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Bipolar Hall Sensor,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag].Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Carbide Adjustable Hand Reamer Manufacturers Cheap Price]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004),Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Automatic Battery Poultry Egg Laying Chicken Cage with a Frame]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inPicnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted ColorsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Laser Cutter Machine,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Dread Lock Sponge/Magic Twists Hair Sponge Brush,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery,6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe].Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable),Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Sodium Saccharin Wholesale,Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam]. Furthermore,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home]. In a typical flotation process (Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Bunion Corrector Big Toe Hallux Valgus Gel Bunion Corrector].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8],Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag].China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Energy-Saving Home Elevator, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Zhongneng Series Plate Press Oil Recovery Machine. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Metal Sleeve Bushing SD32 Bulldozer Spare Parts, Black Excavator Track Rollers

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [m.fencing-cn.com,Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile[Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent,Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inBakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)–Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,Bus Painting Room Large Paint Booths Engineered for Indoor and Outdoor Environments with Full Down Draft Air Flow]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inStainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle.Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light,5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Lightweight Concrete Panels Machine, Foam Concrete Wall Panel Machine. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Newest Slim Bank Card Holder for Promotion Gift with RFID Blocking,Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes,Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer]. In practice (Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel,fastlinepcb]. In flotation principle,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Mini Cnc Laser Cutting Machine, 100mg5ml]. With an increase in pH,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper].Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator,Tin Button Badge]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm,B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker]. Thus,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine,Circular Cutting Machine,Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence]. In contrast, like-Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs[Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel,1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override].Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Stainless Steel 202 304 316 Customization Processing Block CNC Machining,8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant,Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,Automotive Wire Female Connectors Terminals,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color,1060 1350 Aluminum Bus Bar Manufacturers].Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover, a high requirement on pH,Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBack up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator;Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball ValveOften used with alum; high cost;Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment,High Manganese Steel Spare Mantle Cone Crusher Parts, Embroidered Name Patch].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light].Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [China 8layer Pcb]. There are various types of organic coagulants,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD.Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale(polyelectrolytes)86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W-ionic polymers [Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick,Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book].Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook,Graphite Petroleum Coke Carbon Additive, Graphitized Recarburizer,Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod,Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Reach In,Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor]. These include (1)China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [New Design Small Dispensing Machine,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed,Combination Shoe Display Rack].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit, Easy Light Cruiser 8inch. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Square Hay Baler,Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom,Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting,Plastic Injection Mould for Juice Extractor/ Juicer/ Juicing Machine].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe]. For instance,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphoneshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,Steel Stacking Restaurant Wedding Chair,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing[Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit,Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Dental Lab Teeth Dental Resin Block PMMA Discs. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking.Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Priceshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-100t Pillar Type Rubber Vulcanizing Press / Rubber Molding Press(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204).Full Tested LCD Screen Replacement for iPhone 6s Plus[Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook.Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Deviceoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.98 Smart Board IR Iwb Interactive Whiteboard LED LCD Screen for Education and Meetings.Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700shows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration,Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Anti-Skid Hot Press PVC Leather Car Mats for Toyota Yaris,Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown].

Furthermore,SKF Koyo Timken Bearing M249736/10CD 8578/8520CD Ee127095/127136CD Ee127095/127137D Ee127095/127139d Ee170950/171451CD Taper Roller Bearing. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Fruit Tree Power Sprayer,Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Supply Wholesales Travel Polyester Wholesale Lanyard at Factory Price Cross]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO),Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000].Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.T Head Screw Boltshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[ Bale Tine]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Water Irrigation System For Plants]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555,3t 5m Good Design Chain Block].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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