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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter]. In a typical flotation process (Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Electrical Insulation Bakelite Sheets].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer],Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord].Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [China Bifacial Solar Panels,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration[Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used,Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inGi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils–Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,Water Heat Pump]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Toughened Railing Glass]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [OEM Rechargealbe 60V 100ah LiFePO4 Customized Battery Pack for Logistics Vehicles Agv Robots,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine]. With an increase in pH,Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox].Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),Apple Earpods].2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape, a high requirement on pH,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inCompatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Food Trailer Catering Trailer Food Truck +Furniture Set, Service Food Truck-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision[25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins Engine.Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbonshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [m.dgls-tech.com,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton].Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Mud Pump Bi Metal Cylinder Liner/Mud Pump Parts for Bomco /Emsco /National /Oilwell/Russianshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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