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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen.Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Bolt Standard,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount], sedimentation or flotation [Car Ps Tie Rod Ball Joint,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [ Graphitized Recarburizer]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Travel Duffel Bag,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Far-11kv 800A 12.5ka Hv Vacuum Circuit Breaker with Controller /CT/ Zct/ Disconnector,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate]Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321)[Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Glass Jar,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button[Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure,Packaging Machine Manufacturer Made in China Powder Packaging Filling Sealing Machine]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders]. However,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Graphite Pad]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Wholesale Large Food Grade Sealing Glass Food Storage Glass Jar]. Also,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile,Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade],72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine[Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange,12V Cigarette Lighter Extension Cord DC Power Plug 12 24 Volt for Car Tire Inflator Cleaner Male Female Socke]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box,Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic].m.cimmbeatrice.comshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump].3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Stamping Processing Metal Part]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector,Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video,Liquid Soap Dispenser]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inGift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different SizesSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Expansion joint,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree,Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid,Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement,Camiseta sin mangas con bloques de colores,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC].a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask),Food Waste Granules Making Organic Fertilizer Machine, Granulator Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Cnc Horizontal Transfer Machine,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale]. Furthermore,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen]. In a typical flotation process (Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,V6 Terrazzo Floor Polishing Machine Manual Quartz Stone Grinder].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration],Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket,High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher].Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack

Polymer molecular weight (MW)LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Worm Gear Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt[Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inChina Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector–Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,Ball Screws Uk]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle.Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [96X18W Waterproof Rbaw UV LED City Color Light Wall Lighting,China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display]. In practice (Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder,Fused Silica Quartz Sand Cullet 2-100 Mesh for Refractory Materials]. In flotation principle,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [ Fruit Infuser Water Bottle, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [13.56MHz MIFARE DESFire EV1 4k Card,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch]. With an increase in pH,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Custom Ceramic Mug,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine].Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Slurry Separator]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Aluminum Household Step Ladder,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine]. Thus,Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,OEM Manufacturer Pressure Swing Adsorption Plant Medical Oxygen Concentrator,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory]. In contrast, like-ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun[Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels].Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Travel Duffel Bag, Foldable Weekender Bag with Shoes Compartment (grey)(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [1mm Tungsten Wire In Spool,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal,Melamine Camping Tableware Set,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Competitive Price High Quality Various Type Carboxymethyl Cellulose CMC].Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block, a high requirement on pH,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inZnse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine;5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery ChargerOften used with alum; high cost;Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV,C Steel Profile,China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth,Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel].Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Columnshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Hollywood Mirror Makeup Table]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes.5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC(polyelectrolytes)Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine-ionic polymers [Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent].2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Dual Power Suppliers for Sale,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)]. These include (1)DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455,Product Design and Molding,Bipolar Hall Sensor]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Cfs-3 Clauss Fiber Optic Stripper,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Hexagonal Wire Mesh Supplier From China,Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat,bnpo3].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]. For instance,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Dryingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Makeup Kabuki Brush Set,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link[9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm.Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Batteryshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord.Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor[6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light.Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seamoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker.Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Homeshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Aluminum Household Step Ladder.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Top Stainless Steel Baluster Designs Stair Baluster Railing Handrail,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser)].

Furthermore,Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag,Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment,Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Centrifugally Casting Icdp Iron Roll for Hot Strip Rolling Mill,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan].CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Portable Golf Practice Netshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[5mm Ce/UL 5000K Wall Mounted Hotel Bathroom LED Lighted Mirror with Defogger]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,THK Bearing SSR20wxss, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,One Wheel Hovershoes, Hoverboard and Electric Skatboard. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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