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China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal.Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket,Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Marble Side Table,High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid,Custom-Made Gas Spring Strut with Iron Head,5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger], sedimentation or flotation [5 Axis Machining Center Vmc850 5 Axis CNC Machine Vertical Machining Center,Evaporative Air Cooler Evaporator Condenser for Cold Room] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Fiber Optic Wdm,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W,Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal]B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman[Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping,Chinese Best Quality Tensile Strength 16 Gauge Tie Wire,Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer[Best Quality Lightweight Aluminum Composite Panels].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Galvanized Steel Bar Grating for ISO9001 Factory), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Magnetic Front-Service P2.5/P3 Indoor LED Display,BMS 4s Lithium Ion/LiFePO4/Lipo Battery Protect/Circuit /PCB Board 20A]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures,98 Smart Board IR Iwb Interactive Whiteboard LED LCD Screen for Education and Meetings]. However,Factory Price 75 Ohm Rg 59 RG6 Rg11 Rg7 CATV CCTV Cable with 2c 2 Power Coaxial Cable Rg59, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Portable 20g Ozone Generator for Water Purifier,Grey 0.43mm Fire Resistant Blanket Insulation Fireproof Fiberglass Cloth,Nij III IV. 357 Magnum Jsp Military Camouflage Full Guard Combat Bulletproof Vest]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory,Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample,Axe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel,Backpack For Photography]. Also,33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine,Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System],Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp[2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA),Professional Manufacturer Stainless Steel Square Tube (304)]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole,4*2 Dongfeng Refrigerator Truck,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List].100pcs Botany Prepared Slides Factory OEM/ODM Productsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W,Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan].Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Concrete Finish Ride on Power Trowel Machine for Road Paving]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton,Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair,High Speed Passenger Elevator]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale,Grade U2 U3 78mm Mooring Anchor Chain with Nk]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inWholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)Suspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperaturePopular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable,Best Soft Airplane Quilt Supplier for Airline]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [18w Flush Mount Led Work Light,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts,Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8,Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool,Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter,Wholesale Disposable Paper French Fries Box,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler,Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym].Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance ( Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way),High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Steel Cable Padlock,Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine]. Furthermore,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9]. In a typical flotation process (Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill,Strong Air-out High-Pressure Vortex Fans].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring],Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire].Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Advertising Mirror Nail,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers[580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine,Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inTeflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type–Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding,Premium Classic Kids School Bag Made by Lightweight Polyester with a Sitting Pad]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHigh Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers.Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700),RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass Bottle. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Sheet Metal Stamping Spare Parts,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16),Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler]. In practice (2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed,6 Inch Ventilation Fan Fresh Air]. In flotation principle,Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design,PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Good Stability High Speed Box Motion Type Capsule Aluminum Foil Packing Machine,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt]. With an increase in pH,Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10,Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment].Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent,RJ45 8 Pin 8 Core Network Cable]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment,4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement]. Thus,Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts,Anodized Cnc Machine Parts,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross]. In contrast, like-Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools[OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet].Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Anti-Corrosion Industrial Centrifugal Blower,Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set,Industrial Series Mbar Low Pressure Gauge with Phenolic Case,Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette,PVC Foam Sheet 20mm Thickness PVC Board Building Materials].3t 5m Good Design Chain Block, a high requirement on pH,High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inPreofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price,Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck;Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil ContainerOften used with alum; high cost;Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,Custom Design Logo Projection Tag Lights,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light].Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discountshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Boot Man Martin Shoes]. There are various types of organic coagulants,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box.Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate(polyelectrolytes)Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket-ionic polymers [Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood, Graphitized Recarburizer].Custom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men,Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame,Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Travel Duffel Bag,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Cummins Isde Engine Fuel Transfer Pipe 4940552 4933414 3979351 3977928,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth]. These include (1)Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Splice Tray for Fiber Optic Cable Joint Closure Black,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20),China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Titanium Flat Head Machine Screw Supplier & Factory,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Facial Body Hair Removal].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set]. For instance,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Useshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Hot Selling Professional Plastic Injection Automotive Parts Molding,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN[Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile,Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens.Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flangeshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T).High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass[Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30.Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380mloutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer, 10kv 11kv Power Distribution Transformer Power Transformer.Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmeticshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Brass Hose Fitting in Water System,6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector].

Furthermore,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type), biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500). Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [3 Colors Manufacturer High Quality Double Side Thicken Baby Blanket Coral Fleece Blanket,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry].Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Fire Fighting Gloveshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Biobase High Precision Medicine Liquid Clarity Tester]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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