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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315].China Manufacturer Competitive Price Chlorine Cylinder Valveshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Customized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box,THK Bearing SSR20wxss,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar].40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [m.fq-laser.com]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design]. In a typical flotation process (Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip,Blocking Agent Masterbatch Filler Injection].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck],6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil].2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [skrscale.com, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column[Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench–Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa,5 Inch Monochrome Custom Display Screen 5V 20pin Ra8835 320X240 LCD Module]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220,Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Reverse Osmosis Ro 50g,Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC, Automatic Bolt].Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol,Hot DIP Galvanized Shackle G2130].Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inMetal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve,High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Combination Shoe Display Rack; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window]. 4we6jshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Custom Outdoor Event Pop up Canopy Easy up Advertising Tent]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape.Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003(polyelectrolytes)Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall-ionic polymers [10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023),Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter].Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag.
Name
Formula
Typical properties
Uses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl
PAC 23
* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps.
MEGAPAC 23
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* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62)[High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming.Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Braceletsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [m.neodermalfiller.com,High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System].Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.4ft Led Tube Light 5000k 20wshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction,Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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