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Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine.Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket,High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Ce/ISO Approved Medical Water Proof Digital Thermometer (MT01039203),8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord], sedimentation or flotation [Folding Computer Desk,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Accelerometer Sensor Price Suppliers/Manufacturers for Sale,China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter]Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette[Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder,How Much A Paper Die-Cutting Machine,Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports[OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant ( Fruit Infuser Water Bottle), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [ Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Booth Besar Cat]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch,Custom Ceramic Mug]. However,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine,Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,2016 The Very Fast Car Charger QC 3.0 Technology]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Aluminum Household Step Ladder,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,High Quality Transmission Sprocket Motorcycle Parts]. Also,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels],5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier[Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,RFID Silicon Wristband for Access Control (Classic S50 Chip)]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal].China Vanity With Mirror And Lightsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame].39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Compressor Wine Fridge 24 Bottles Double Door Wine Cooler]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV,Low Price Oil and Gasoline Resistant Synthetic Rubber Hose]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inChina Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust CollectorSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Ladies Fashion Drawstring Bucket Genuine Leather Shoulder Handbag,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set,Fiberglass Heat Resistant FRP Ladder Cable Tray,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8),Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455,Product Design and Molding].Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Bipolar Hall Sensor),2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Cummins Generator Set Diesel Engine Part Oil Cooler Core 3966365 for 6L Series,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen]. Furthermore,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag]. In a typical flotation process (Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004),High Precision Low Waste Automatic Silicone Lace Coating Machine].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer],Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat].Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Modern Fabric Floor Standing Lamp for Hotel (GF2657-1),Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt[1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying–High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Graphics Packaging Special Material Cutting Machine Dieless Automatic CNC Box Making Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inInvisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff.Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Fashion Accessories,6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable]. In practice (Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home,Flower Girl Party Tutu Dress to 7 Years Old Children]. In flotation principle,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather,It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Food Beverage Nisin Supplier & Manufacturer,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser)]. With an increase in pH,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag,Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate,Composite Laid Scrims Meth For Foils]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle]. Thus,Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded Glass Window for RF Enclosure,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light]. In contrast, like-Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use[5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption,Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes].Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Controller High Precision Glue Dispensing Machine,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry,Rubber Seal,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500)]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line, 100mg5ml].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard,A4 Envelope File Bag Suppliers/Manufacturers for Sale].Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers, a high requirement on pH,Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inDecorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator,Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment;Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature RiseOften used with alum; high cost;Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman,Sg3 Sg5 Sg8 Pvc Raw Material,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine,Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence].Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keelshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Osyea-6W to 200W Outdoor Integrated All in One LED Solar Street Garden Light with CCTV Camera]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel.Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting(polyelectrolytes)Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders-ionic polymers [1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet].HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Custom OEM Sheet Metal Stamping Parts Bending and Weld Machine Parts,Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant]. These include (1)Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower,Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Rubber Coated Pipe Clamp,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Control units,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient,Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [ Embroidered Name Patch,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants,8 Fan].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine]. For instance,Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stickshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book,Heavy Duty Single Suction 3 Phase Simple Structure Horizontal Centrifugal Chemical Pumps,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace[Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts,Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System.Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in Indiashows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs.Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine[Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set.Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoeoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design.1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Combination Shoe Display Rack,Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom,Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Best Sale Nylon  Kitchen Cleaning Scouring Pad Sponge    (JJ-YF327),Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3].

Furthermore,Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [1000W CNC Fiber Laser Cutting Machine for Cutting Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Galvanized Steel Alu Copper Metal Pipe and Tube,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit].Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Aluminum Screen High Building Facade Aluminum Window Louvershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Taulman Nylon]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device,Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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