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Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine.Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [35L Electric Car Mini Fridge,Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [360 Degree Tilt Ceiling Tv Mount,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Waterproof Night Vision USA License Plate Frame Rearview Reverse Camera,1220*2440mm White/ Black Rigid High Density PVC Foam Board for Advertising,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor], sedimentation or flotation [HOWO 6X4 20m3/20000litres/5300gallon Oil Mobile Transportation Tanker Truck,Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery,Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [TV Tower Antenna Supports,Tractor and Implements Disc Plough Harrow Mower Slasher 4 in 1 Front Loader Agricultural Equipments,Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09)]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine]Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette[Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace,Interactive Touch Screen Digital Signage Kiosk,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports[Easy Drop Unilin Click 12mm Eir Matt Surface V-Groove Wooden Laminate/Laminated Flooring].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (OEM Service for Motorcycle Hoist in China), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008,Hot Sale Dental Consumables Disposable Saliva Ejector]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Cotton Mesh Shopping Organizer Reusable Produce Bags,Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration]. However,ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Wholesale Business Gift PU Cover Custom Notebook Printing,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70),Boys Casual Coat]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose,Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD,Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q),Motorcycle Crankcase Cover]. Also,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Diamond Hand Polishing Pads with Resin and Electroplated Type,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale,25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner],5 Inch 10 Inch 20 Inch 30 Inch 40 Inch Replacement Ceramic Candle Filter Cartridge for Water Filter for RO System Water Filter Purifier[PVC Shrink Sleeve Label for Drinking Water Bottle,Ce Certified Round Advertising LED Light Box Sign Billboard]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket,OEM Investment Casting for Pump Part,Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision].Mini Refillable 6ml Glass Bottle Wooden Cap Car Perfume Bottleshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [HOWO 30m3 Fuel Tank Truck Oil Truck Lorry Tank Truck]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole,Good Quality 600mm 9W Energy Saving Aluminum 160lm/W LED Tube Light,Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator].39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Black Band Wire 1.2 Mm]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Automatic Tube Filling and Sealing Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Raw Wood Tree Debarker Log Skin Debarking Peeling Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Durable Stage Lifting Tools High Quality PA Series Mini Electric Wire Rope Hoist 100kgs to 1000kgs with Trolley,Types of 502kw-1561kw Processing Low Temperature Water Chiller,Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Dongfeng 10000L Sewer Jetting Truck Industrial Sewer Jetting Truck,Corset For Weight Loss]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inCustom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust CollectorSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature750ml Dark Green Champagne Wine Bottles
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo,Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [1200 Foam Crust Xpe Die Head,Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube,HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA,Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment,Mechanical Parts Silicon Carbide Sic Ceramic Screw Nut Bolt,Wall Grooving Diamond Blade Saw Blades for Angle Grinder Machine,Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws,Large Damping Compression Spring for Stage Spring with Black Helix,Stainless Steel Single Filter Cartridge Housing for Food Grade].Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel),2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [High Quality 98% Feed Grade Betaine Anhydrous,Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price]. Furthermore,12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector]. In a typical flotation process (Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain,Adjusters Road Sleeve].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Android Video Interface Car GPS Navigation System for 2014-2018 Year Mercedes-Benz C-Class A205]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould],Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump,Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site].Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Industry Grade Sodium Gluconate for Concrete Admixture,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts,Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt[Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with Fan) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner–High Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [ Hollow Section,Farm Walking Tractor]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inSmash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear.Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve,Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon,EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China). Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [5L PVC Bottles High Speed Blow Moulding Machinery,Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product,Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler]. In practice (2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors,100100 ) - Baggage Detector]. In flotation principle,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [China Suppliers Zhong Shan Cheap Wholesale Outdoor Waterproof LED Flood Street Light 50watts,Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Carbon Activated Filter Ozone Generator Desktop Filter Pm2.5 Air Purifier Olansi,New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#)]. With an increase in pH,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger,ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery,Carbon Steel Galvanized Pipes / Square Tube]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic,Hygienic Stainless Steel Manual Welded Butterfly Valves with Square Handle,600ml Plastic Denture Jewelry Ultrasonic Cleaner with Digital Timer]. Thus,Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Double Glass 19 32 Inch Smart HD Color LCD LED TV,Various Models Molybdenum Metal Bar,Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room]. In contrast, like-Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use[ HD Baby Monitor for Baby,Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution].Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Adult Products,Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck,Dust Free Foam Tip Cleaning Swabs PP Stick for Printer,L46 Fixing Angle,Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer,Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve,Cast Iron Submersible Sewage Pumps High Quality Supplier].Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers, a high requirement on pH,Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in2019 New Design Windproof Men Hiking Suspender Trousers Ski Winter Pant Snowboard Trousers for Men. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [14-Inch Vacuum-Brazed Diamond Saw Blades for Metal and Iron,Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment;Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature RiseOften used with alum; high cost;Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Igeelee HS-05wf 0.5-6.0mm2 Crimping Tools for Wire End Sleeves High Quality Multi-Function Crimping Pliers Tube Crimping Pliers,Munchy Sticks,Rectangle 100 Ml Perfume Glass Bottle with Leather Decoration].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer,PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector].Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection Systemshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [m.dmgstainless.com]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Quality JAC Truck Parts Steering Wheel.Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting(polyelectrolytes)Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders-ionic polymers [Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047),Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam].HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color]. These include (1)Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Postbox,Container House as Kinder Garden,Brand New Hbt80 Stationary Concrete Pump Trailer Pump for Sale]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Price Red/Yellow/Brown/Black/Blue/Green Iron Oxide Pigment,High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005),High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [12.1 Inch Pcap Touch Monitor with Flat Screen,3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [China Solar Module,2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi,High Sensitivity Archway Metal Detector (AT-IIID) Metal Detector]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer,Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W,Good Performance Carbon Steel].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle,High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication]. For instance,Sleeveless OEM Cotton Breathable Boys Printed T Shirtshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches,500ml Glass Wine /Spirits /Liquor/Vodka Bottle, 420].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace[Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross,Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System.Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs.Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine[Rosen 4kw off Grid Solar Energy Systems with Battery Bank,Lacquered Embossed Aluminum Foil for HVAC Systems]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set.Full Tested LCD Screen Replacement for iPhone 6s Plusoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design.100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoorshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw,6189-0533 2 Pin Female Waterproof Wiring Harness Assembly Terminals Automotive Connector,36V/48V 10ah Lithium Battery 250W/500W Fat Tyre Folding Portable]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Dsola Free Design High Heat Resistance Solar PV Connectors Mc4 Cable Connector,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump].

Furthermore,Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Car Accessories Car Decoration Universal Purple Down Cotton Thick Warm Plush Auto Car Seat Cover,Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine,New Pop Design Aluminum Clip in Ceiling for Interior Decorative]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [High Quality Round Seamless Steel Pipe for Pipeline Transport,Hot Sales Popular Carton Custom Softcover Book&Printing Service].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Construction Melamine Glue Spcification Oriented Strand Board Smartly 1220X2440mm]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button,SLS 3D Printing ABS Nylon Prototyping Service Machining 3D].Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Automatic Round Bottle Labeling Machineshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Tractor Haul off Unit/Pipe Puller]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[2 Row Paddy Weeder Field Manufacturers Cheap Price]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox,Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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