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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5)

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line.Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,High Pressure Polyurethane Pouring Foam / Injection Machine. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Aluminum Pipe 3003,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [SGC,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels], sedimentation or flotation [Aluminum Coil For Beverage Cans,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Original HOWO Trucks Chassis Body Engine Spare Parts of 1086304057 Wg9725540060 Vg1540010006,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality]C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw[Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,CNC Machine Glass Plated / Decorative Wall Electric Light Touch Switch Glass Panel,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle[Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant ( P60), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light,Chemical Product Sodium Gluconate for Concrete Admixtures (Concrete Retarder)]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank]. However,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Telescopic Camera Jib Crane,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,Baby Hichchair]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,Any Size 50*30mm Custom Engraved Name Soldiers Military Steel Dog Tag Pendant]. Also,6189-0533 2 Pin Female Waterproof Wiring Harness Assembly Terminals Automotive Connector, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8],Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold[Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Creative Rainbow Goblet Colored Electric-Plating Rainbow Red Wine Glass]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold].1622087100 Air Compressor Part Oil Separatorshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process].Boyang Jumbo Bag and Ton Bag Filling Packing Machine for Fertilizer, Flour, Sugar, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Running Rectangle Capacitor]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,Blank Plastic Id Card Factory OEM/ODM Products]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inChina Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for SaleSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureStainless Steel Rotary Union for Hydraulic Oil
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)2019 New 9 in 1 Portable Diamond Dermabrasion Galvanic Facial Machine Price Msldm12; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Visual Dripping Machine,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant,Swivel recliner chair,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press].Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals),Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Durable PP Drawstring Packing Garlic Mesh Bag,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk]. Furthermore,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water]. In a typical flotation process (High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,New Women 3 Pieces Tee Shirts Quick Dry Gym Clothing Fitness Bra Running Active Training Jacket Sports Wear].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine],Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine].Vvvf Passenger Home Observationvilla Glass House Sightseeing Golden Elevator with Good Price, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Toray Siveras LCP Lx70t45 Resin Natural/Black Engineering Plastic

Polymer molecular weight (MW)China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Iveco. Genlyon Recovery Trucks Heavy Duty Wrecker 50tons with Remote Control Rotatory Crane Wrecker for Towing Truck,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Customized High Quality Rubber Diaphragm,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette[70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Comfortable Sportswear Colorful Sexy Cycling Bib Shorts for Women,(Midtech Industry) Plastic HDPE/PE Ocean Marine Pedal Profile Board Extrusion/Extruder Making Machine) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inGMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet–Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Automatic PCBA Tester SMT Aoi Inspection Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inPartition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould.AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Manufacturer High Strength Carbon Steel Heavy Hex Nut,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging]. In practice (Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Eva Garden Injection Shoe Mould]. In flotation principle,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Ammonium Chloride Tech Grade 25kg Bag,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter]. With an increase in pH,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass].Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,Aluminum Fence]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine]. Thus,0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,Electrical Conduit Galvanized Pipe,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper]. In contrast, like-Chinese Furniture Melamine Modern Cheap Office Manager Computer Table. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print[Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe].Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Automatic Dewatering Machine Price /Industrial Dewatering Machine/Jeans Dewatering Machine(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [China Jewelry Outsourcing Manufacturers Cheap Price,FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Dahepack Powder Packing Machine Powder Filling Machine,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,China Wholesale Christmas Decoration Battery Operated Metal Candy Stick Pendant LED String Light].China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure, a high requirement on pH,Energy-Saving Home Elevator, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Zhongneng Series Plate Press Oil Recovery Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Metal Sleeve Bushing SD32 Bulldozer Spare Parts, Black Excavator Track Rollers;Automatic High Speed V-Groove Cutting Machine/CNC Press Brake Grouped MachineOften used with alum; high cost;Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,Washami 48h Fragrance Skin Whitening Body Lotion 300ml,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men].Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plantshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Moulded Plastic Components]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent.Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven(polyelectrolytes)Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers-ionic polymers [High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood].Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Lightweight Concrete Panels Machine, Foam Concrete Wall Panel Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Household Family Medical Emergency Electronic Digital Thermometer,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding]. These include (1)99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Segment Module,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [chinapucornice,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,Agricultural Tillage Point Welded Tungsten Carbide Products Made in China].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]. For instance,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Gradeshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,aihdcam,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve[Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover.One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassetteshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Die Casting Aluminum LED Elephant Trunk Light Radiator.Pn16 SS316 / 304 ISO5211 Pad 1PC Wafer Ball Valve[Fruit Juice Production Line,Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 200W.0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineeringoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch.Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipmentshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal,High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Backhoe Loader Factory OEM/ODM Products,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing].

Furthermore,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug,Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Graphite Petroleum Coke Carbon Additive, Graphitized Recarburizer. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Electric Wire Cutting Machine Supplier & Factory,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery,Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine].Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.China Mining Dump Truck 70shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[APC/Emerson/Eaton Alternative Double Conversion Online UPS]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna,Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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