IntechOpen

HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry,Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Products,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)], sedimentation or flotation [www.gilardinoflooring.com,Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Hydraulic Friction Winch,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture]Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable[Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils,Multicore Underground Aluminum Conductor Steel Tape Armored Power Cable,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc[Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,Hydraulic Flexible Hose]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er]. However,Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps,250ml Clear Plastic Spray Bottle for Perfume Skin Care]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package,Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Spike Lightning Rod Protection System]. Also,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Toughened Railing Glass,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag],Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine[T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox,www.sincere-paper.com]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber].Factory Supply 150kn Automatic Steel Thread Rolling Machineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts].BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Sisal Twisted Rope]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover,Polyelectrolyte Cationic]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inDeep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection SystemSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Black Dwc Sewerage And Drainage Pipe Line,Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Equipment For Tire Recycling,Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle].Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk),Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [m.aviationaluminum.com,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator]. Furthermore,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand]. In a typical flotation process (IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,China Portable Bookshelf].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine],T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube].Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Colorful Slime Package Box,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan[Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag,Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder–0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,Latest New Design Fashion Kid PVC Rain Coat]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inMilk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator.Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [ Snack Food Packaging,Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Danish Flower Trolley,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System]. In practice (Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light,Matte Black Graduation Gown with Honor Cords]. In flotation principle,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Mobile Car Wash Pressure Washer,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon]. With an increase in pH,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [ Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)].Portable Laser Engraver 20W.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler,57mm Small Brushless DC Worm Planetary Gear Motor]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill]. Thus,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Multifunctional Corn Hammer Mill for Sale,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer]. In contrast, like-Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels[High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier].Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700).

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Vital Injector(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Color Candle Holder Empty Glass Candle Container,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery,Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,12mic Aluminum Metallized Polyester Film for Flexible Air Ducts,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,Adopting Advanced Linear Slider Vertical Foam Cutting Machine].Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315, a high requirement on pH,Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inBest Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Rigging Hook,Eye Hook,Hardware Rigging Hook,Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,Stainless Steel Rigging Hook,Rigging Slip Eye Hook,Lifting Rigging Hook,Eye Sling Hook,; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel;Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve GasketOften used with alum; high cost;Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,Electronic Survey Factory OEM/ODM Products,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel].Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150Wshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [China Manufacturer Supply 8 Tons Cable Pulling Hydraulic Winch]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Grade Handbags Accessories Gold Custom Metal Zipper Pull, Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags.Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm(polyelectrolytes)Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge-ionic polymers [ Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings,High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing].High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration,Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor,100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Aluminium / Stainless Channel Letter Auto Profile Bending Machine Price,304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate]. These include (1)10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Custom Tempered Glass Top,Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [0.20mm to 12.50mm High Carbon Spring Steel Wire,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW),Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price,Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Ntc Probe with Handle Temperature Sensor for Meat,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058),PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,14G Computerized Fully Fashion Knitting Machine (AX-132S)].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber]. For instance,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Toleranceshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive,Extruded Aluminium,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price[Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Lidocaine Hydrochloride CAS 73-78-9 Lidocaine HCl, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way.10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor Systemshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop.Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs[ 304,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.50X100 Hollow Section, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube.Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machineoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag.Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machineshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration,25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [3d Bouncing Ball,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh].

Furthermore,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence,Navy Graduation Folder-Smooth Leatherette Wholesale]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Drywall Screw Factory,Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags].Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Excellent High Quality Full Gold Sequins Lace Fabrics Gold Sequins Wedding/Party Lace Fabricshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Yg15 Cemented Carbide Strips]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality,Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk, Max-Wb Sneaker, Baby Shoe Esg10361. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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