4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch-reviewed chapter
Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine
Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556
Downloaded: 1551
The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof.Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.
The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Purple Agate Onyx Countertop,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo], sedimentation or flotation [m.hbgcdl-fasteners.com,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [UK Smart Socket Power Strip with 6 AC Outlets and 4-Port USB Ports,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter]5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC[Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing,High Qualityroad Reflective Tape for Warning at Night High Visible All Colors,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine[Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade].
In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts,Glass Bottle With Eye Dropper]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material]. However,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation,Canvas Hammocks]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,Construction Materials Monofilament Polypropylene Fiber for Concrete Motar]. Also,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade],Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor[Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,High Precision Metalloscope]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test].
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette].Plastic Injection Molding Manufacturer From Ningboshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Fruit Juice Production Line]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment].Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Twist Off Cap Capping Machine]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce.
Physicochemical treatment process [24].
Also,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security,Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metal]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6,Corundum Mullite Brick]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inSecondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing.
| Coagulant characteristics | MOW characteristics | Physical characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Coagulant type | Water quality | Flotation/settling time |
| Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print | Suspended solids | Mixing intensity |
| Coagulant quality | Temperature | Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film |
| Coagulant lifespan | pH | Chemical stability during storage |
| Proper solution makeup and dilution | Alkalinity | |
| Ionic constituents |
Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug].
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)John Deere Hydraulic Cylinders for Sale; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [www.agapassworld.com,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC),CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery,Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine,m.qhmixdrymortarplant.com,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold,100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting,Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine].201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.
For instance (OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping),3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Htl12-200 Long Life 20years 12V200ah Deep Cycle Gel Battery,UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna]. Furthermore,Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift]. In a typical flotation process (Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector,High Definition 4 in 1 CCTV OSD Board Camera Module].
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable],DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Hot Selling Portable Plastic Kids Child Baby Food Eat Feeding High Dining Chair for Restaurant,2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes].En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface). All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Graphite Electrodes for Electric Arc Furnace Factory Price,3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker[Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Aluminum Household Step Ladder) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in Injection Mould Maker in China–Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover,4d Lipo Laser Slimming Cellulite Laser]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inChicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine.High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable,Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe,China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.
Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.
Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Automatic Double Heads Commercial Coffee Machine,Stainless Steel Fabrication Custom Garden Horse Security safety Temporary Field Chain Lik Fence (plastic,High Ouput Pet Pharmacy Bottle Injection Blow Molding Machine]. In practice (Connecting Minifix Screws Heavy Duty Three in One Connector Rod (ROD-A262)), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch,Sc-Sc Metal Type Single Fiber Optic Adapter]. In flotation principle,THK Bearing SSR20wxss-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [240ml PP Baby Feeding Bottle with Cute Printing,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link].
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle,2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace]. With an increase in pH,2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Preaueen 2019 Hyaluronic Acid for Injection (1ml&2ml),Modular Prefab Hire Cabins].Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday.
Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket,High Efficient Adult Diaper Machine with Ce (CNK300-SV)]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL]. Thus,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector.
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [ Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin,Hot Sale Full Lace Women Headbands,Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support]. In contrast, like-Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming[Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W,Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material].5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color.
Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Wholesale Custom HDPE/LDPE/Biodegradable Trash Drawstring Bags,3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Private Label Teeth Whitening Activated Charcoal Powder Organic Natural Coconut Charcoal Powder for Daily Use,Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs,www.doingshoes.com,Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital,China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine].
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine,Custom Wholesale Modern Eco Friendly Restaurant Furniture].304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate, a high requirement on pH,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
| Name | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O | Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range |
| Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 | PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088;Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor | Often used with alum; high cost;5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption |
| Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15 | In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum | Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives |
| Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 | Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity |
| Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O | Effective between pH 4 and 11 | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum |
| Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O | Not as pH sensitive as lime | Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity |
| Lime Ca(OH)2 | Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent | pH-dependent;Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction; overdose can result in poor effluent quality |
Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Portable Laser Engraver 20W,Low cost Custom printed MIFARE Classic 4K RFID Smart Plastic Card,Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine].
Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet,ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes].Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrassshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [attachment spare parts]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Paper Straw Biodegradable Striped Paper Straw for Drink, Bar Accessories, Wedding, Party.Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700(polyelectrolytes)Colored Hex Head Self Drilling Metal Screw with Color Rubber Washer-ionic polymers [Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram,33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol].Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer.
| Name | Formula | Typical properties | Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH) Al2(OH)5Cl | PAC 23 | * 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACH | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal |
| MEGAPAC 23 | |||
| ALCHLOR AC | * SG 1.33 | ||
| * 83–84% basicity | |||
| PROFLOC A23 | * 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l | ||
| Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3 | PAC-10 LB | * 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl | Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry |
| MEGAPAC 10 | |||
| * SG 1.18 | |||
| * 50% basicity | |||
| * 10.5% w/w Cl | |||
| * 245 g/l | |||
| Polyaluminium silicosulphate Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58 | PASS® | * 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w Al | Forms flocs easily |
| * SG 1.34 | |||
| * 54% basicity | |||
| Polyferric sulfate Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7 | PFS® | * 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3 | Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater |
| * SG 1.54 | |||
| * 10% basicity | |||
| * 673 g/l |
Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment,Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face].
There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [N-Cyclohexyl Pyrrolidone,High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine]. These include (1)M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV, Super Bass Music TV, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12),Affordable Price 7005,Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Water Pump 1125390,Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing,Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part].
Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [New Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag,Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration].
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,New Technology Commercial Cashew Shelling Machine.
Dispersions: In this case,Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml(emulsion of oil-water).
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Broiler Poultry Farm House Design,Plastic PVC (vacuum calibration cooling tank haul off cutter stacker) Pipe Extruding Machine,Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook,Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness,China Paper Cups 12oz].
Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1)]. For instance, Service Food Truckshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine,Good Quality Nice Appearance Tier on Tier Custom PVC Plantation Blinds Roller Window Shutter,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine[Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping.Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shadeshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
| Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|
| C3H3O2Na | 100 | 10.2 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25 | 75 | 8.5 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50 | 50 | 6.1 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 3.3 |
| (C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.4 |
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| Polymer | Molecular formula | CD (mol %) | CD (meq/g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| PDADMAC | C8H16NCl | 100 | 6.2 |
| ECH/DMA | C5H12ONCl | 100 | 7.3 |
| CPAM | C8H16O2NCl | 100 | 5.2 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5 | 50 | 3.8 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75 | 25 | 2.5 |
| CPAM | (C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9 | 10 | 1.2 |
| Chitosan | C6H11O4N.HCl | 100 | 5.2 |
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light,Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale,Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [L Shape Outdoor Sofa Set with Cushion and Coffee Table (DW-SF1906),Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder].
Furthermore,Custom Printed Plastic Die Cut Handle Bag with Side Gusset. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay, Black Excavator Track Rollers,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Generator Spare Parts Automatic Voltage Regulator AVR GB-100, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Performance Industrial Wafer Butterfly Valves,Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer,Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System].Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.High-Temp Automotive Masking Tapeshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
| Industries | Coagulant | Dosing | Performance | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pulp and paper | Poly-aluminum-silicate-chloride | 40 mg/l | 93.13% COD 91.12% turbidity | [PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine] |
| Textile industry | PAC | 25 mg/l | 90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity | [Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth] |
| Dye wastewater | Polyferric chlorides (PFCs) | 30 mg/l | 55% reduction | [Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine] |
| Vegetable tannery wastewater | PACl (poly aluminum chloride) | 60 mg/l | 45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity | [Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack] |
| Palm oil effluent | PAC | 0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l | 99% SOG | [Plasitc Prototyping Prototype Mould Plastic Injection Mold for Vehicle] |
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House,Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration].
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
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