IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [THK Bearing SSR20wxss,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [www.yasentag.com,4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117),Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent, BOPP], sedimentation or flotation [Seamless Cold Rolled Round 2 Inch Stainless Steel Pipe,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump,Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Pesticide Synergist Agent,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor]Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate[Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation,Office Wood Bookcase,Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket[Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192)), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e,Electric Scooter With Seat]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design]. However,Custom Size Christmas Gift Personalized Watch Boxes for Men, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer,Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip,Reasonable Price and Fast Delivery Yk11/Yk-11 1370003-76-1]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil,Cheap Palisade Euro Fencing]. Also,Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp,Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape,Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench],Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive[Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa,10W Portable Home Solar PV Panel Energy Power Lighting Kit]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05),Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010,Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather].High Efficient Precast Station 180cbm/H Concrete Batching Plantshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring].Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Needle free connector]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis, 1300mm,High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine,Drum-Type Rotary Wood Sawdust Dryer Machine]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inPremium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational ConnectorSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureEnhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [ Automatic Bolt,Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Stone Pattern,High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck,Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor,Slioing Sleeve,0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration,17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch),Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet].IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin),Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [256 Sensitivity Level Waterproof Walk Through Metal Detector,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing]. Furthermore,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine]. In a typical flotation process (DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),200watts Led High Bay Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe],High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol].Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Electronic Stainless Steel Plate Temperature & Humidity Testing Chamber (HD-150T)

Polymer molecular weight (MW)High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Disposable Silicone Drip Tips,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30,250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer, 10kv 11kv Power Distribution Transformer Power Transformer[CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHigh Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal–One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine,China 3m Clothing And Gear Insect Repellent]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type). Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inAir Booster High Pressure Air Compressor.Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500), which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window, 4we6j]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Edible Oil Filter Machine India Edible Oil Filter Machine,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023),Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter]. In practice (Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Tungsten Carbide Button Bits]. In flotation principle,Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67, HEC]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Color Temperature Turnable,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage]. With an increase in pH,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet].General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping,Stainless Steel]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man,7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080]. Thus,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home,HVAC Supply Round Air Girlle Ball Spout Air Nozzle Diffuser,100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom]. In contrast, like-Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G)[Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades,Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine].6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Finishing Aluminium Alloy Profile, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Sludge Dewatering Screw Press Separator Multi-Plate Sludge Dehydrator Treatment,Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports,Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets,Recessed LED Panel Light Round Square 600X600 48W,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [ T2/Tp2,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole,Living Room Tv Stand].China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine, a high requirement on pH,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inLeadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part,Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security;Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet MachineOften used with alum; high cost;Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line),Full Automatic Pillow Flow Packing Machine for Candy Bread Cake,High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants,Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color].Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collectorshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Ybco Superconductor Ceramic Target]. There are various types of organic coagulants,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry.Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate(polyelectrolytes)HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line-ionic polymers [Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes,PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine].Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line,Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Erikc 0 445 120 048 Common Rail Spare Parts Injector 0445120048 Bosch Injector for Mitsubishi Me222914,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts]. These include (1)Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm,Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [2 Ton Construction Lifting Equipment Construction Lifter Elevator Small Construction Hoisting Equipment,High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction,Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500),Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5)].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Coat Pin,Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use,Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers,Automatic Liquid Tension Tester].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product]. For instance,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [One Wheel Hovershoes,Wholesale 16D AC110 16mm Panel Mount LED Indicator Light,GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable[ Bright Surface for Furniture,Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men.Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Ringsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable.160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold[Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s,Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging.High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Sealoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine.CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormoneshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube,72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Hex Bolt 931 High Quality Supplier,Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump].

Furthermore,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton,4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp,Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Knitted Custom Baseball Football Cap with Embroidered Logo,Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube,Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry].New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#), as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Cow Rubber Sheetshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Binding And Folding Machine Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM), and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet,Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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12V Car Tail Light for Ranger(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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