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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy,Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Diamond Turbo Protective Teeth Cutting Disc Granite Concrete Saw Blade,Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Fashion Woven Gold Metal Frame Kiss Lock Wallet,Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid,Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness], sedimentation or flotation [Key Cutting Machine Tutorial,05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine,Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [380mm Working Area Concrete Diamond Floor Edge Grinder,PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder,Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [ Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity]New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag[2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts,Hot Selling! ! High Quality Quartz Stone Kitchen Sink,Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors)]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag[Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire,Aluminum Folding Stretcher]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine]. However,Auto Servo High Temperature Garment Labels Screen Printing Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B),Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Filament Acupuncture Non-Woven Geotextile]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers,Antique Porcelain Dinner Set]. Also,Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate],Food Trailer Catering Trailer Food Truck +Furniture Set, Service Food Truck[Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill,China Double-Row Brass Cage Spherical Roller Bearing]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [High Speed Small Brushless Motor,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem, SMD LED Soldering Machine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover].Big Size Women Clothesshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor].Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Body Exercises Fitness Equipment Adjustable Bench Gym Equipment]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.2019 Smart HD Optics Thermal Imaging Camera Digital Thermal Night Vision.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Electric Trolling Motor]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inIndustrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
25kVA-1500kVA Electric Silent Diesel Power Generator with Cummins EngineSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureFully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Nylon Heat Transfer Printing Luggage Belt,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products,Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),Dimmable Led Track Lighting Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Pipe 3003].China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC), whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming),European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Stainless Steel 304 Wire Mesh Food Dehydrator Tray for Dryer,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox]. Furthermore,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket]. In a typical flotation process (PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,High Tension Steel Wire for Spring].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays],12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t].CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machine

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [m.hhomedecor.com,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Single Billet Heating Aluminium Alloy Aging Furnace[Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality–T5577 Thick Card Passive ABS 125kHz T5577 RFID Thick Card(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,Carbon Fiber Powder]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Peristaltic Pump with Connecting The High Speed Tubular Separator. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inFlat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting.High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts, P60,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [8X22X7mm Full Ceramic Si3n4 Zro2 Skate Bearing 608,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank]. In practice (Telescopic Camera Jib Crane), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,Portable Home Water Oxygen Jet Peel Oxygen Facial Machine]. In flotation principle,Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07),Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [jb-hardware,High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer]. With an increase in pH,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8].CL1C-GW123 Comlom PC Water Bottle, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Palm Oil Extraction Milling Pressing Machine Oil Palm Processing Plant]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker]. Thus,Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,Newest Modern 1 Seater Metal Leg Fabric Sofa (HX-HT662),High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]. In contrast, like-High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar[High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack].Industry Grade High Quality Sodium Sulphate Anhydrous 99%.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Rubber Boots,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,Diamond Wire Saw for Granite Block,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Forging Parts and Casting Parts Thrust Wheels for Rotary Kiln and Mill].Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber, a high requirement on pH,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inMicropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		2019 Cartoon Kindergarten School Bags Fashion Backpacks with Customised Logo Design;Hot Sale Spindle Less Veneer Rotary Peeling Lathe, 1300mm, 2600mmOften used with alum; high cost;Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Sheet Metal Hydraulic Folding Machine; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [ Booth Seating for Restaurant,Medical Paper Lid with PETG Blister Plastic Packaging,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press].a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animalsshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Human Anatomy Microscope Slides Manufacturers Cheap Price]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor.Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle(polyelectrolytes)4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp-ionic polymers [Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water].AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [LiFePO4 Lithium Ion Battery 48V 100ah for Home Solar System 4.8kwh,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper]. These include (1)It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Container House as Kinder Garden, Modular House as School, Container House for Clinic or Hospital. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [High Efficiency Log Tree Debarker Wood Peeler Tree Bark Peeling Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth, Car Spray Inflatable Booth, Stock Tent for Sale, American paint Booth Style. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Black Steel Square Pipe, Bright Surface for Furniture, Rectangular Black Pipe. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Fashion Hot Sale Mesh Lace Fabric Lace for Women Dress(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Promotional Cotton Sports Hat with Logo Custom Baseball Cap,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Emergency Push Button Switch (19mm)].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging]. For instance,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mgshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Factory Price Aluminum Exterior Wall Cladding Sheets,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable[ Great for Vintage,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455.1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jarshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid.Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen[CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business.High Quality Toughened Translucent Glassoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade.6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Teeshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Hf Vacuum Dryer Machine for Drying Wood OEM Service Supplier,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper].

Furthermore,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light, Soda Ash. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Food And Beverage Decanter,FC Fiber Optics Adapter].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing].Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Cow Mat Stall Rubber Matting Nylon Inserted Ribbed Hammer Cow Rubber Floor Rollshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Koller CE Certificate Ice Cube Machine 4 Tons Large Capacity]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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